Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 handwiki Dean Liu -- 4703 2022-11-29 01:38:44

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
HandWiki. Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37601 (accessed on 25 September 2026).
HandWiki. Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37601. Accessed September 25, 2026.
HandWiki. "Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37601 (accessed September 25, 2026).
HandWiki. (2022, December 01). Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37601
HandWiki. "Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis." Encyclopedia. Web. 01 December, 2022.
Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis
Edit
The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Medicine:Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis

Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis (TB) infection caused by bacteria that are resistant to treatment with at least two of the most powerful first-line anti-TB medications (drugs), isoniazid and rifampin. Some forms of TB are also resistant to second-line medications, and are called extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB). Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Almost one in four people in the world are infected with TB bacteria. Only when the bacteria become active do people become ill with TB. Bacteria become active as a result of anything that can reduce the person's immunity, such as HIV, advancing age, diabetes or other immunocompromising illnesses. TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or first-line, anti-TB drugs (i.e., isoniazid, rifampin and any fluoroquinolone). However, beginning with the first antibiotic treatment for TB in 1943, some strains of the TB bacteria developed resistance to the standard drugs through genetic changes (see mechanisms.) Currently the majority of multidrug-resistant cases of TB are due to one strain of TB bacteria called the Beijing lineage. This process accelerates if incorrect or inadequate treatments are used, leading to the development and spread of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). Incorrect or inadequate treatment may be due to use of the wrong medications, use of only one medication (standard treatment is at least two drugs), not taking medication consistently or for the full treatment period (treatment is required for several months). Treatment of MDR-TB requires second-line drugs (i.e., fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and others), which in general are less effective, more toxic and much more expensive than first-line drugs. Treatment schedules for MDR-TB involving fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides can run for 2 years, compared to the 6 months of first-line drug treatment, and cost over US$100,000. If these second-line drugs are prescribed or taken incorrectly, further resistance can develop leading to XDR-TB. Resistant strains of TB are already present in the population, so MDR-TB can be directly transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person. In this case a previously untreated person develops a new case of MDR-TB. This is known as primary MDR-TB, and is responsible for up to 75% of cases. Acquired MDR-TB develops when a person with a non-resistant strain of TB is treated inadequately, resulting in the development of antibiotic resistance in the TB bacteria infecting them. These people can in turn infect other people with MDR-TB. MDR-TB caused an estimated 600,000 new TB cases and 240,000 deaths in 2016 and MDR-TB accounts for 4.1% of all new TB cases and 19% of previously treated cases worldwide. Globally, most MDR-TB cases occur in South America, Southern Africa, India, China, and the former Soviet Union. Treatment of MDR-TB requires treatment with second-line drugs, usually four or more anti-TB drugs for a minimum of 6 months, and possibly extending for 18–24 months if rifampin resistance has been identified in the specific strain of TB with which the patient has been infected. Under ideal program conditions, MDR-TB cure rates can approach 70%.

fluoroquinolones fluoroquinolone multi-drug-resistant

References

  1. Sandhu, P; Akhter, Y (26 September 2017). "Evolution of structural fitness and multifunctional aspects of mycobacterial RND family transporters.". Archives of Microbiology 200 (1): 19–31. doi:10.1007/s00203-017-1434-6. PMID 28951954.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00203-017-1434-6
  2. Louw, G. E.; Warren, R. M.; Gey Van Pittius, N. C.; McEvoy, C. R. E.; Van Helden, P. D.; Victor, T. C. (2009). "A Balancing Act: Efflux/Influx in Mycobacterial Drug Resistance". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 53 (8): 3181–9. doi:10.1128/AAC.01577-08. PMID 19451293.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2715638
  3. Gillespie, S. H. (2002). "Evolution of Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Clinical and Molecular Perspective". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 46 (2): 267–74. doi:10.1128/AAC.46.2.267-274.2002. PMID 11796329.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=127054
  4. Ramaswamy, S; Musser, JM (1998). "Molecular genetic basis of antimicrobial agent resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: 1998 update". Tubercle and Lung Disease 79 (1): 3–29. doi:10.1054/tuld.1998.0002. PMID 10645439.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1054%2Ftuld.1998.0002
  5. Baptista, Rafael; Bhowmick, Sumana; Nash, Robert J; Baillie, Les; Mur, Luis AJ (2018-03-23). "Target discovery focused approaches to overcome bottlenecks in the exploitation of antimycobacterial natural products" (in EN). Future Medicinal Chemistry 10 (7): 811–822. doi:10.4155/fmc-2017-0273. PMID 29569936. http://orca.cf.ac.uk/110455/8/Target%20discovery%20focused%20approaches%20to%20overcome%20bottlenecks%20in%20the%20exploitation%20of%20antimycobacterial%20natural%20products.pdf. 
  6. Hanekom, M.; Pittius, N.C. Gey van; McEvoy, C.; Victor, T.C.; Helden, P.D. Van; Warren, R.M. (2011). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype: A template for success". Tuberculosis 91 (6): 510–523. doi:10.1016/j.tube.2011.07.005. PMID 21835699.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tube.2011.07.005
  7. Ford, Christopher B.; Shah, Rupal R.; Maeda, Midori Kato; Gagneux, Sebastien; Murray, Megan B.; Cohen, Ted; Johnston, James C.; Gardy, Jennifer et al. (July 2013). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutation rate estimates from different lineages predict substantial differences in the emergence of drug resistant tuberculosis". Nature Genetics 45 (7): 784–790. doi:10.1038/ng.2656. ISSN 1061-4036. PMID 23749189.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3777616
  8. Mestre, Olga; Luo, Tao; Vultos, Tiago Dos; Kremer, Kristin; Murray, Alan; Namouchi, Amine; Jackson, Céline; Rauzier, Jean et al. (2011-01-20). "Phylogeny of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing Strains Constructed from Polymorphisms in Genes Involved in DNA Replication, Recombination and Repair". PLOS One 6 (1): e16020. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016020. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 21283803. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...616020M.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3024326
  9. Millard, James; Ugarte-Gil, Cesar; Moore, David A. J. (2015-02-26). "Multidrug resistant tuberculosis". BMJ 350: h882. doi:10.1136/bmj.h882. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 25721508. http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h882. 
  10. Dalton, Tracy; Cegielski, Peter; Akksilp, Somsak; Asencios, Luis; Caoili, Janice Campos; Cho, Sang-Nae; Erokhin, Vladislav V; Ershova, Julia et al. (2012). "Prevalence of and risk factors for resistance to second-line drugs in people with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in eight countries: A prospective cohort study". The Lancet 380 (9851): 1406–17. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60734-X. PMID 22938757.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2812%2960734-X
  11. "Diagnosis and notification of multidrug-resistant TB". World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.who.int/tb/challenges/mdr/mdr_tb_factsheet.pdf. Retrieved 7 December 2016. 
  12. WHO. "Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 2013 Update". World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/tb/challenges/mdr/MDR_TB_FactSheet.pdf. Retrieved 14 June 2013. 
  13. Velayati, A; Farnia P; Masjedi M (2013). "The totally drug resistant tuberculosis (TDR-TB)". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 6 (4): 307–309. PMID 23641309.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3631557
  14. Zumla, Alimuddin; Abubakar, Ibrahim; Raviglione, Mario; Hoelscher, Michael; Ditiu, Lucica; Mchugh, Timothy D.; Squire, S. Bertel; Cox, Helen et al. (2012-05-15). "Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis—Current Dilemmas, Unanswered Questions, Challenges, and Priority Needs". Journal of Infectious Diseases 205 (suppl 2): S228–S240. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir858. ISSN 0022-1899. PMID 22476720. http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/205/suppl_2/S228. 
  15. Parida, S. K.; Axelsson-Robertson, R.; Rao, M. V.; Singh, N.; Master, I.; Lutckii, A.; Keshavjee, S.; Andersson, J. et al. (2015-04-01). "Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis and adjunct therapies". Journal of Internal Medicine 277 (4): 388–405. doi:10.1111/joim.12264. ISSN 1365-2796. PMID 24809736.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjoim.12264
  16. Gao, Qian; Li, Xia (2010). "Transmission of MDR tuberculosis". Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms 7: e61–5. doi:10.1016/j.ddmec.2010.09.006.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ddmec.2010.09.006
  17. Lobue, Philip (2009). "Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 22 (2): 167–73. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283229fab. PMID 19283912. https://zenodo.org/record/1234905. 
  18. Farmer 2005, p. 133.
  19. Shin, Sonya; Furin, Jennifer; Bayona, Jaime; Mate, Kedar; Kim, Jim Yong; Farmer, Paul (2004). "Community-based treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Lima, Peru: 7 years of experience". Social Science & Medicine 59 (7): 1529–39. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.01.027. PMID 15246180.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2004.01.027
  20. Koch, Erin (2011). "Local Microbiologies of Tuberculosis: Insights from the Republic of Georgia". Medical Anthropology 30 (1): 81–101. doi:10.1080/01459740.2010.531064. PMID 21218357.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F01459740.2010.531064
  21. Koch, Erin (2006). "Beyond suspicion". American Ethnologist 33: 50–62. doi:10.1525/ae.2006.33.1.50.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.2006.33.1.50
  22. "Scientific Facts on Drug-resistant Tuberculosis". GreenFacts. 2008-12-18. http://www.greenfacts.org/en/tuberculosis/l-2/1-mdr-tb-xdr.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
  23. Farmer, Paul (2001). "The Major Infectious Diseases in the World — to Treat or Not to Treat?". New England Journal of Medicine 345 (3): 208–10. doi:10.1056/NEJM200107193450310. PMID 11463018.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM200107193450310
  24. Baltussen, R.; Floyd, K; Dye, C (2005). "Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies for tuberculosis control in developing countries". BMJ 331 (7529): 1364. doi:10.1136/bmj.38645.660093.68. PMID 16282379.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1309642
  25. Mitnick, Carole; Bayona, Jaime; Palacios, Eda; Shin, Sonya; Furin, Jennifer; Alcántara, Felix; Sánchez, Epifanio; Sarria, Madeleny et al. (2003). "Community-Based Therapy for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Lima, Peru". New England Journal of Medicine 348 (2): 119–28. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022928. PMID 12519922. https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/9891/1/nejmoa022928.pdf. 
  26. Goble, Marian; Iseman, Michael D.; Madsen, Lorie A.; Waite, Dennis; Ackerson, Lynn; Horsburgh Jr, C. Robert (1993). "Treatment of 171 Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis Resistant to Isoniazid and Rifampin". New England Journal of Medicine 328 (8): 527–32. doi:10.1056/NEJM199302253280802. PMID 8426619.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199302253280802
  27. WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, 2016 Update. WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2016. ISBN 9789241549639. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390455/. 
  28. WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, 2016 Update. WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2016. ISBN 9789241549639. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK390455/. 
  29. Ziganshina, L. E.; Squire, S. B. (2008-01-23). Ziganshina, Lilia E. ed. "Fluoroquinolones for treating tuberculosis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004795. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004795.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 18254061.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD004795.pub3
  30. Leimane, Vaira; Riekstina, Vija; Holtz, Timothy H; Zarovska, Evija; Skripconoka, Vija; Thorpe, Lorna E; Laserson, Kayla F; Wells, Charles D (2005). "Clinical outcome of individualised treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Latvia: A retrospective cohort study". The Lancet 365 (9456): 318–26. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17786-1. PMID 15664227.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2805%2917786-1
  31. Schon, T.; Elias, D.; Moges, F.; Melese, E.; Tessema, T.; Stendahl, O.; Britton, S.; Sundqvist, T. (2003). "Arginine as an adjuvant to chemotherapy improves clinical outcome in active tuberculosis". European Respiratory Journal 21 (3): 483–8. doi:10.1183/09031936.03.00090702. PMID 12662006.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1183%2F09031936.03.00090702
  32. Rockett, Kirk A.; Brookes, Roger; Udalova, Irina; Vidal, Vincent; Hill, Adrian V. S.; Kwiatkowski, Dominic (1998). "1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Induces Nitric Oxide Synthase and Suppresses Growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a Human Macrophage-Like Cell Line". Infection and Immunity 66 (11): 5314–21. doi:10.1128/iai.66.11.5314-5321.1998. PMID 9784538.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=108664
  33. Zaitzeva, S. I.; Matveeva, S. L.; Gerasimova, T. G.; Pashkov, Y. N.; Butov, D. A.; Pylypchuk, V. S.; Frolov, V. M.; Kutsyna, G. A. (2009). "Treatment of cavitary and infiltrating pulmonary tuberculosis with and without the immunomodulator Dzherelo". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15 (12): 1154–62. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02760.x. PMID 19456829.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2009.02760.x
  34. Butov, Dmitry A; Pashkov, Yuri N; Stepanenko, Anna L; Choporova, Aleksandra I; Butova, Tanya S; Batdelger, Dendev; Jirathitikal, Vichai; Bourinbaiar, Aldar S et al. (2011). "Phase IIb randomized trial of adjunct immunotherapy in patients with first-diagnosed tuberculosis, relapsed and multi-drug-resistant (MDR) TB". Journal of Immune Based Therapies and Vaccines 9: 3. doi:10.1186/1476-8518-9-3. PMID 21244690.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3031205
  35. Chambers, H. F.; Turner, J.; Schecter, G. F.; Kawamura, M.; Hopewell, P. C. (2005). "Imipenem for Treatment of Tuberculosis in Mice and Humans". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 49 (7): 2816–21. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.7.2816-2821.2005. PMID 15980354.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1168716
  36. Chambers, Henry F.; Kocagöz, Tanil; Sipit, Tugrul; Turner, Joan; Hopewell, Philip C. (1998). "Activity of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate in Patients with Tuberculosis". Clinical Infectious Diseases 26 (4): 874–7. doi:10.1086/513945. PMID 9564467.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F513945
  37. Peter r. Donald, Frederick a. Sirge; Sirgel, FA; Venter, A; Parkin, DP; Van De Wal, BW; Barendse, A; Smit, E; Carman, D et al. (2001). "Early Bactericidal Activity of Amoxicillin in Combination with Clavulanic Acid in Patients with Sputum Smear-positive Pulmonary Tuberculosis". Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 33 (6): 466–9. doi:10.1080/00365540152029954. PMID 11450868.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00365540152029954
  38. Jagannath, C; Reddy, M V; Kailasam, S; O'Sullivan, J F; Gangadharam, P R (1995). "Chemotherapeutic activity of clofazimine and its analogues against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In vitro, intracellular, and in vivo studies". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 151 (4): 1083–6. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.151.4.7697235. PMID 7697235.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1164%2Fajrccm.151.4.7697235
  39. Adams, Linda B.; Sinha, Indu; Franzblau, Scott G.; Krahenbuhl, James L. Krahenbuhl; Mehta, Reeta T. Mehta (1999). "Effective Treatment of Acute and Chronic Murine Tuberculosis with Liposome-Encapsulated Clofazimine". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43 (7): 1638–43. doi:10.1128/AAC.43.7.1638. PMID 10390215.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=89336
  40. Janulionis, E.; Sofer, C.; Song, H.-Y.; Wallis, R. S. (2004). "Lack of Activity of Orally Administered Clofazimine against Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Whole-Blood Culture". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 48 (8): 3133–5. doi:10.1128/AAC.48.8.3133-3135.2004. PMID 15273133.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=478499
  41. Shubin, H; Sherson, J; Pennes, E; Glaskin, A; Sokmensuer, A (1958). "Prochlorperazine (compazine) as an aid in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis". Antibiotic Medicine and Clinical Therapy 5 (5): 305–9. PMID 13521769.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13521769
  42. Wayne, L G; Sramek, H A (1994). "Metronidazole is bactericidal to dormant cells of Mycobacterium tuberculosis". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 38 (9): 2054–8. doi:10.1128/AAC.38.9.2054. PMID 7811018.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=284683
  43. "FDA Press Release". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 31 December 2012. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm333695.htm. 
  44. Carroll, John (31 December 2012). "J&J wins accelerated OK for first new TB drug in 40 years". fiercebiotech.com. http://www.fiercebiotech.com/story/jj-wins-accelerated-ok-first-new-tb-drug-40-years/2012-12-31. Retrieved 3 January 2013. 
  45. Stover, C. Kendall; Warrener, Paul; Vandevanter, Donald R.; Sherman, David R.; Arain, Taraq M.; Langhorne, Michael H.; Anderson, Scott W.; Towell, J. Andrew et al. (2000). "A small-molecule nitroimidazopyran drug candidate for the treatment of tuberculosis". Nature 405 (6789): 962–6. doi:10.1038/35016103. PMID 10879539. Bibcode: 2000Natur.405..962S.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F35016103
  46. Chase, Marilyn (27 October 2004). "Novartis Sets Deal to Seek New Drugs for Fighting TB". TB Alliance. Archived from the original on 6 May 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070506175858/http://new.tballiance.org/newscenter/view-innews.php?id=520. Retrieved 3 January 2013. 
  47. Farmer 1999.
  48. Farmer 2005, p. 148.
  49. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329368/9789241565714-eng.pdf?ua=1
  50. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329368/9789241565714-eng.pdf?ua=1
  51. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329368/9789241565714-eng.pdf?ua=1
  52. Wood, Alastair J.J.; Iseman, Michael D. (1993). "Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis". New England Journal of Medicine 329 (11): 784–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM199309093291108. PMID 8350889.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199309093291108
  53. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (August 1991). "Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV-infected persons—Florida and New York, 1988–1991". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40 (34): 585–91. PMID 1870559.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1870559
  54. Edlin, Brian R.; Tokars, Jerome I.; Grieco, Michael H.; Crawford, Jack T.; Williams, Julie; Sordillo, Emelia M.; Ong, Kenneth R.; Kilburn, James O. et al. (1992). "An Outbreak of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis among Hospitalized Patients with the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome". New England Journal of Medicine 326 (23): 1514–21. doi:10.1056/NEJM199206043262302. PMID 1304721.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199206043262302
  55. Pitchenik, Arthure; Burr, Janice; Laufer, Marla; Miller, Gary; Cacciatore, Robert; Bigler, Williamj.; Witte, Johnj.; Cleary, Timothy (1990). "Outbreaks of drug-resistant tuberculosis at AIDS centre". The Lancet 336 (8712): 440–1. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)91987-L. PMID 1974967.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0140-6736%2890%2991987-L
  56. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (March 1991). "Transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis from an HIV-positive client in a residential substance-abuse treatment facility—Michigan". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40 (8): 129–31. PMID 1900098.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1900098
  57. Fischl, Margaret A.; Uttamchandani, RB; Daikos, GL; Poblete, RB; Moreno, JN; Reyes, RR; Boota, AM; Thompson, LM et al. (1992). "An Outbreak of Tuberculosis Caused by Multiple-Drug-resistant Tubercle Bacilli among Patients with HIV Infection". Annals of Internal Medicine 117 (3): 177–83. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-117-3-177. PMID 1616211.  https://dx.doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-117-3-177
  58. Centers for Disease Control (1990). "Outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis—Texas, California, and Pennsylvania". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 39 (22): 369–72. PMID 2111434. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001636.htm. 
  59. Rochkind, David (2010-08-09). "Moldova: Fighting a Deadly Disease". Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/eastern-europe/moldova-fighting-deadly-disease. Retrieved 23 September 2012. 
  60. McKay, Betsy (March 9–10, 2013). "Risk of Deadly TB Exposure Grows Along U.S.—Mexico Border". The Wall Street Journal: p. A1.  https://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wall%20Street%20Journal
  61. Frieden, Thomas R.; Sterling, Timothy; Pablos-Mendez, Ariel; Kilburn, James O.; Cauthen, George M.; Dooley, Samuel W. (1993). "The Emergence of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in New York City". New England Journal of Medicine 328 (8): 521–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199302253280801. PMID 8381207.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199302253280801
  62. Garrett 2000, p. 266ff.
  63. Garrett 1994, p. 524.
  64. Farmer 2005, p. 118.
  65. Ärzteblatt, Deutscher Ärzteverlag GmbH, Redaktion Deutsches (2016-12-27). "MDR-Tuberkulose unter Migranten aus Somalia" (in de). https://www.aerzteblatt.de/nachrichten/72186/MDR-Tuberkulose-unter-Migranten-aus-Somalia. 
  66. Ärzteblatt, Deutscher Ärzteverlag GmbH, Redaktion Deutsches (2016-12-27). "MDR-Tuberkulose unter Migranten aus Somalia" (in de). https://www.aerzteblatt.de/nachrichten/72186/MDR-Tuberkulose-unter-Migranten-aus-Somalia. 
  67. Nachega J., Chaisson R. (2003). "Tuberculosis Drug Resistance: A Global Threat". Clinical Infectious Diseases 36 (1): S24–S30. doi:10.1086/344657. PMID 12516027.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F344657
  68. Bobrik A.; Danishevski K.; Eroshina K.; McKee M. (2005). "Prison Health in Russia: The Larger Picture". Journal of Public Health Policy 26 (1): 30–59. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200002. PMID 15906874.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jphp.3200002
  69. Baussano I.; Williams B.; Nunn P.; Beggiato M.; Fedeli U. (2010). "Tuberculosis Incidence in Prisons: A Systematic Review". PLOS Medicine 7 (12): e1000381. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000381. PMID 21203587.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3006353
  70. Shin S. S.; Pasechnikov A.; Gelmanova I.; Peremitin G.; Strelis A.; Andreev Y.; Golubchikova V.; Tonkel T. et al. (2006). "Treatment outcomes in an integrated civilian and prison MDR-TB treatment program in Russia". The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 10 (4): 402–407. PMID 16602404.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16602404
  71. Ruddy M.; Balabanova Y.; Graham C.; Fedorin I.; Malomanova N.; Elisarova E.; Kuznetznov S.; Gusarova G. et al. (2005). "Rates of drug resistance and risk factor analysis in civilian and prison patients with tuberculosis in Samar Region, Russia". Thorax 60 (2): 130–135. doi:10.1136/thx.2004.026922. PMID 15681501.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1747303
  72. Stern, V. (2001). Problems in Prisons Worldwide, with a Particular Focus on Russia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 953b, 113-119.
  73. Fry R.; Khoshnood K.; Vdovichenko E.; Granskaya J.; Sazhin V.; Shpakovskaya L; Zhemkov V.; Zhemkova M. et al. (2005). "Barriers to completion of tuberculosis treatment among prisoners and former prisoners in St. Petersburg, Russia". The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 9 (9): 1027–1033. PMID 16158896.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16158896
  74. Gelmanova I.; Keshavjee S.; Golubchikova V.; Berezina V.; Strelis A.; Yanova G.; Atwood S.; Murray M. (2007). "Barriers to successful tuberculosis treatment in Tomsk, Russian Federation: non-adherence, default and the acquisition of multidrug resistance". Bulletin of the World Health Organization 85 (9): 703–11. doi:10.2471/BLT.06.038331. PMID 18026627.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2636414
  75. Kimerling M.E.; Kluge H.; Vezhnina N.; Iacovazzi T.; Demeulenaere T.; Portaels F.; Matthys F. (1999). "Inadequacy of the current WHO re-treatment regimen in a central Siberian prison: treatment failure and MDR-TB.". The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 3 (5): 451–453. PMID 10331736.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10331736
  76. Farmer P (1999). "Pathologies of power: rethinking health and human rights". American Journal of Public Health 89 (10): 1486–1496. doi:10.2105/ajph.89.10.1486. PMID 10511828.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1508789
More
©Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons-Attribution ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Others
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
HandWiki
View Times: 1.4K
Entry Collection: HandWiki
Revision: 1 time (View History)
Update Date: 01 Dec 2022
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback