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Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)-induced disease (COVID-19) and Gaucher disease (GD) exhibit upregulation of complement 5a (C5a) and its C5aR1 receptor, and excess synthesis of glycosphingolipids that lead to increased infiltration and activation of innate and adaptive immune cells, resulting in massive generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and growth factors. This C5a–C5aR1–glycosphingolipid pathway- induced pro-inflammatory environment causes the tissue damage in COVID-19 and GD. Strikingly, pharmaceutically targeting the C5a–C5aR1 axis or the glycosphingolipid synthesis pathway led to a reduction in glycosphingolipid synthesis and innate and adaptive immune inflammation, and protection from the tissue destruction in both COVID-19 and GD.
Coronavirus | Immune Cell Involvement |
Source | Changes in Complement Products, Cytokines and Chemokines |
References |
---|---|---|---|---|
SARS-CoV-2 | Leucocytes, PMNs PCs Endothelial cells |
Blood Sera Lungs |
C5a +++ C5aR1 +++ MAC +++ |
[24][25][26][27][28] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Type-II pneumocytes Pulmonary cells Platelets |
Blood Sera Lungs |
C1q P+++ C3b-regulatory factor H (FH) P+++ C3 P+++ |
[26][29][30][31] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Type-II pneumocytes PBMCs | Blood Sera Lung |
C3a P+++ C3aR P +++ C3b-CD46 P+++ |
[26][31][32][33][34] |
SARS-CoV-2 | PBMCs | Blood Sera |
sC5b-9 P+++ | [27][35][36][37] |
SARS-2 | Respiratory specimen cells Alveolar cells |
Blood Sera Lung |
C4d P+++ | [35][38] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Respiratory specimen cells |
Blood Sera |
C3bBbP P+++ | [35] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Respiratory specimen cells |
Blood Sera |
C3bc P+++ | [35] |
SARS-CoV-2 | PBMCs Glomeruli Cardiac Microthrombi and Alveolar cells |
Blood Sera Lung Heart Kidney |
C5b-C9 P+++ | [36][37][38][39][40] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Pulmonary cells | Lung | C1r P+++ | [29] |
SARS-CoV-1 | Pulmonary cells | Lung | iC3b P+++ | [31] |
SARS-CoV-1 | Pulmonary cells | Lung | C3c P++ | [31] |
SARS-CoV-1 | Pulmonary cells | Lung | C3dg P+++ | [31] |
MERS | MOs/Mɸs T cells mDCs pDCs PMNs |
Liver SPL Lung Kidney Heart Serum |
IL12 M+++ IL8 M+++ TNFα M+++ IL-6 M&P+++ IFNλ M+++ CXCL10 M&P+++ CCL2 M+++ CCL3 M+++ CCL5 M+++ IFNα M+ & P+++ IFNβ M+ & P+++ |
[41][42][43][44][45][46][47] |
SARS-CoV-1 | Mos Mɸs DCs Cord blood cells |
Lung Blood |
IFNβ M+ IFNα M+ TNFα M+++ IFNλ M+++ IL8 M+++ TNFα M+++ IL6 M+++ CCL2 M+++ CCL3 M+++ CCL5 M+++ CXCL10 M+ |
[42][48][49][50] |
SARS-CoV-2 | MOs Mɸs |
Blood | IL6 P+++ IL8 P+++ IL10 P+++ TNFα P+++ |
[51] |
SARS-CoV-2 | CD8+ cells NK+ cells |
PBMCs | IL2 P+ TNFα P+ IFNγ P+++ Granzyme B P+++ |
[52][53] |
SARS-CoV-2 | CD8+ cells CD4+ cells |
Liver Lung Heart |
Cytokines NR | [53] |
SARS-CoV-2 | PMNs | Lung | Cytokines NR | [54] |
MERS | CD4+ T cells CD8+ T cells |
Lymph Nodes Spleen Tonsils PBMCs |
Caspase-3 P+++ | [55] |
SARS-CoV-1 | CD4+ cells CD8+ cells CD45RO+ and CD27+ cells |
PBMCs | IL2 P++ TNFα P++ IFNγ P+++ IL4 PNS CXCL10 PNS |
[56][57] |
SARS-CoV-2 | CD4+ T cells CD8+ T cells Regulatory T cells |
PBMCs | CCR6 P+++ Perforin P+++ IL6 P+++ IL2 M+++ IL7 M+++ |
[51][58][59][60][61][62][63] |
MERS | Epithelial cells | Lung | IL1β M+++ IL6 M+++ IL8 M+++ IFNα M+ CCL2 M+ CXCL10 M+ |
[64][65] |
SARS-CoV-1 | Epithelial cells | Lung | TNFα M+++ IFNβ M+++ CXCL10 M+++ |
[64] |
Coronavirus | Source | Cytokines | Chemokines | Growth Factors | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
MERS | Sera | IFNα P+++ IL6 P+++ IL8 P+++ |
CCL5 P+++ CXCL10 P+++ |
[45][47][98] | |
SARS-CoV-1 | Sera | IFNα P+++ IFNγ P+++ IL1 P+++ IL2 P+++ IL6 P+++ IL8 P+++ IL10 P+ IL12 P+++ |
CCL2 P+++ CXCL9 P+++ CXCL10 P+++ |
TGFβ P+++ | [98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Sera | IFNγ P+++ TNFα P+++ IL1b P+++ IL1RA P+++ IL2 P++ IL2R P++ IL4 P++ IL5 P++ IL6 P+++ IL7 P+++ IL8 P+++ IL9 P+++ IL10 NS IL12 P+++ |
CCL2 P+ CCL3 P+ CXCL10 P+ |
G-CSF P+++ GMCSF P+++ VEGF P+++ FGF P+++ PDGF P+++ |
[57][59][62][98][110][111][112][113][114] |
SARS-CoV-2 | Sera | CCL2 P+++ | [109][114] | ||
SARS-CoV-2 | Sera | CCL3 NS | [109] | ||
SARS-CoV-2 | Sera | CXCL8 P+++ | [114] | ||
SARS-CoV-2 | Sera | CXCL10 P++ | [109][114] |
Mouse Model of GD | GD Patients | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Immune Cells | Tissue Recruitment | References | Immune Cells | References |
MOs | Blood +++ | [115] | Blood - | [116][117] |
Mɸs | Blood +++, Liver +++, Spleen +++, Lung +++ |
[66][115][118][119] | Lymph node +++ | [120] |
mDCs | Blood +++, Liver +++, Spleen +++, Lung +++ |
[66][115][118][119] | Blood - | [116][117][121][122] |
pDCs | Blood - | [116][117][121] | ||
PMNs | Blood +++, Liver +++, Spleen +++, Bone Marrow +++ |
[66][115] | ||
CD4 + TCells | Liver +++, Spleen +++, Lung +++ | [66][118][119] | Blood +++ | [121][122] |
CD8 + T Cells | Thymus +++, Spleen +++ |
[118][119] | Blood +++ | [122][123] |
NK Cells | Blood - | [121][123] |