1. History

The idea of electric propulsion for spacecraft was introduced in 1911 by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.^[1] Earlier, Robert Goddard had noted such a possibility in his personal notebook.^[2]

Electrically powered propulsion with a nuclear reactor was considered by Tony Martin for interstellar Project Daedalus in 1973, but the approach was rejected because of its thrust profile, the weight of equipment needed to convert nuclear energy into electricity, and as a result a small acceleration, which would take a century to achieve the desired speed.^[3]

The first demonstration of electric propulsion was an ion engine carried on board the SERT-1 (Space Electric Rocket Test) spacecraft.^[4][5] It launched on 20 July 1964 and operated for 31 minutes.^[4] A follow-up mission launched on 3 February 1970, SERT-2. It carried two ion thrusters, one operated for more than five months and the other for almost three months.^[4][6][7]

By the early 2010s, many satellite manufacturers were offering electric propulsion options on their satellites—mostly for on-orbit attitude control—while some commercial communication satellite operators were beginning to use them for geosynchronous orbit insertion in place of traditional chemical rocket engines.^[8]

2. Types

2.1. Ion and Plasma Drives

These types of rocket-like reaction engines use electric energy to obtain thrust from propellant. Unlike rocket engines, these kinds of engines do not require nozzles, and thus are not considered true rockets.

Electric propulsion thrusters for spacecraft may be grouped into three families based on the type of force used to accelerate the ions of the plasma:

 Electrostatic

If the acceleration is caused mainly by the Coulomb force (i.e. application of a static electric field in the direction of the acceleration) the device is considered electrostatic. Types:

• Gridded ion thruster
  • NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR)
  • HiPEP
  • Radiofrequency ion thruster
• Hall-effect thruster, including its subtypes Stationary Plasma Thruster (SPT) and Thruster with Anode Layer (TAL)
• Colloid ion thruster
• Field emission electric propulsion
• Nano-particle field extraction thruster

Electrothermal

The electrothermal category groups devices that use electromagnetic fields to generate a plasma to increase the temperature of the bulk propellant. The thermal energy imparted to the propellant gas is then converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle of either solid material or magnetic fields. Low molecular weight gases (e.g. hydrogen, helium, ammonia) are preferred propellants for this kind of system.

An electrothermal engine uses a nozzle to convert heat into linear motion, so it is a true rocket even though the energy producing the heat comes from an external source.

Performance of electrothermal systems in terms of specific impulse (Isp) is 500 to ~1000 seconds, but exceeds that of cold gas thrusters, monopropellant rockets, and even most bipropellant rockets. In the USSR, electrothermal engines entered use in 1971; the Soviet "Meteor-3", "Meteor-Priroda", "Resurs-O" satellite series and the Russia n "Elektro" satellite are equipped with them.^[9] Electrothermal systems by Aerojet (MR-510) are currently used on Lockheed Martin A2100 satellites using hydrazine as a propellant.

• Resistojet
• Arcjet
• Microwave
• Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR)

Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic thrusters accelerate ions either by the Lorentz force or by the effect of electromagnetic fields where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration. Types:

• Electrodeless plasma thruster
• Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
• Pulsed inductive thruster
• Pulsed plasma thruster
• Helicon Double Layer Thruster

2.2. Non-Ion Drives

Photonic

A photonic drive interacts only with photons.

Electrodynamic tether

Electrodynamic tethers are long conducting wires, such as one deployed from a tether satellite, which can operate on electromagnetic principles as generators, by converting their kinetic energy to electric energy, or as motors, converting electric energy to kinetic energy.^[10] Electric potential is generated across a conductive tether by its motion through the Earth's magnetic field. The choice of the metal conductor to be used in an electrodynamic tether is determined by factors such as electrical conductivity, and density. Secondary factors, depending on the application, include cost, strength, and melting point.

Controversial

Some proposed propulsion methods apparently violate currently-understood laws of physics, including:^[11]

• Quantum Vacuum Thruster
• EM Drive or Cannae Drive

2.3. Steady vs. Unsteady

Electric propulsion systems can be characterized as either steady (continuous firing for a prescribed duration) or unsteady (pulsed firings accumulating to a desired impulse). These classifications can be applied to all types of propulsion engines.

3. Dynamic Properties

Electrically powered rocket engines provide lower thrust compared to chemical rockets by several orders of magnitude because of the limited electrical power available in a spacecraft.^[12] A chemical rocket imparts energy to the combustion products directly, whereas an electrical system requires several steps. However, the high velocity and lower reaction mass expended for the same thrust allows electric rockets to run on less fuel. This differs from the typical chemical-powered spacecraft, where the engines require more fuel, requiring the spacecraft to mostly follow an inertial trajectory. When near a planet, low-thrust propulsion may not offset the gravitational force. An electric rocket engine cannot provide enough thrust to lift the vehicle from a planet's surface, but a low thrust applied for a long interval can allow a spacecraft to maneuver near a planet.