Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 handwiki Vivi Li -- 6905 2022-11-17 01:41:55

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
HandWiki. Encoding (Memory). Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/35008 (accessed on 07 October 2026).
HandWiki. Encoding (Memory). Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/35008. Accessed October 07, 2026.
HandWiki. "Encoding (Memory)" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/35008 (accessed October 07, 2026).
HandWiki. (2022, November 17). Encoding (Memory). In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/35008
HandWiki. "Encoding (Memory)." Encyclopedia. Web. 17 November, 2022.
Encoding (Memory)
Edit
The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Biology:Encoding_(memory)

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.

long-term memory memory recall

References

  1. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.
  2. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  3. Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W., & Anderson, M.C. (2009). Memory. London: Psychology Press. p. 27, 44-59
  4. Parker, Amanda; Bussey, Timothy J.; Wilding, Edward L. (2005-08-18) (in en). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory: Encoding and Retrieval. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-135-43073-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=PSB5AgAAQBAJ&q=physiological+and+mental+approaches+to+encoding+memory&pg=PP1. 
  5. Sperling, G. (1963). A model for visual memory tasks. Human Factors, 5, 19-31.
  6. Sperling, G. (1967). Successive approximations to a model for short term memory. Acta Psychologica, 27, 285-292.
  7. Belova, M.A., Morrison, S.E., Paton, J.J., & Salzman, C.D. (2006). The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning. Nature; 439(7078): 865-870.
  8. Groome, David, 1946- (2013). An introduction to cognitive psychology : processes and disorders (Third ed.). Hove, East Sussex. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-1-317-97609-7. OCLC 867050087.  http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/867050087
  9. Brown and Craik (2000)
  10. Demb, JB., Desmond, JE., Gabrieli, JD., Glover, GH., Vaidya, CJ., & Wagner, AD. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. The Journal of Neuroscience; 15, 5870-5878.
  11. Frey, S., & Petrides, M. (2002). Orbitofrontal cortex and memory formation. Neuron, 36(1), 171-176.
  12. Carlson and Heth(2010). "Chapter 8". Psychology the Science of Behaviour 4e. Pearson Education Canada. p. 233. 
  13. Acheson, D.J., MacDonald, M.C., & Postle, B.R. (2010). The Interaction of Concreteness and Phonological Similarity in Verbal Working Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychogy: Learning, Memory and Cognition; 36:1, 17-36.
  14. Hughes, Robert W.; Chamberland, Cindy; Tremblay, Sébastien; Jones, Dylan M. (October 2016). "Perceptual-motor determinants of auditory-verbal serial short-term memory" (in en). Journal of Memory and Language 90: 126–146. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2016.04.006.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jml.2016.04.006
  15. Baddeley, A. D. (1966). "The Influence of Acoustic and Semantic Similarity on Long-term Memory for Word Sequences". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 18 (4): 302–309. doi:10.1080/14640746608400047. ISSN 0033-555X. PMID 5956072. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14640746608400047. 
  16. Crawley, AP., Davis, KD., Mikulis. DJ. & Kwan, CL. (1998). Function MRI study of thalamic and cortical activation evoked by cutaneous heat, cold, and tactile stimuli. Journal of Neurophysiology: 80 (3): 1533–46
  17. Mohs, Richard C. "How Human Memory Works." 8 May 2007. HowStuffWorks.com. 23 February 2010.
  18. Schacter, D., Gilbert, D. & Wegner, D.(2011) Psychology, 2nd edition, Chapter 6: Memory, p.232
  19. Lepage, M., Habib, R. & Tulving. E. (1998). Hippocampal PET activations of memory encoding and retrieval: The HIPER model. Hippocampus, 8:4: 313-322
  20. Grady, CL., Horwitz, B., Haxby, JV., Maisog, JM., McIntosh, AR., Mentis, MJ., Pietrini, P., Schapiro, MB., & Underleider, LG. (1995) Age-related reductions in human recognition memory due to inpaired encoding. Science, 269:5221, 218-221.
  21. Birmes, P., Escande, M., Schmitt, L. & Senard, JM. (2002). Biological Factors of PTSD: neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Encephale, 28: 241-247.
  22. Wagner, M. (2008). The His452Tyr variant of the gene encoding the 5-HT(2a) receptor is specifically associated with consolidation of episodic memory in humans. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 11, 1163–1167.
  23. Rasch, Björn H.; Born, Jan; Gais, Steffen (2006-05-01). "Combined Blockade of Cholinergic Receptors Shifts the Brain from Stimulus Encoding to Memory Consolidation". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18 (5): 793–802. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.793. ISSN 0898-929X. PMID 16768378.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1162%2Fjocn.2006.18.5.793
  24. Kandel, E. (2004). The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialog Between Genes and Synapses. Bioscience Reports, 24, 4-5.
  25. Sacktor, T.C. (2008). PKMz, LTP Maintenance, and the dynamic molecular biology of memory storage. Progress in Brain Research, 169, Ch 2.
  26. Cabeza, R., Daselaar, S.M., & Hongkeun, K. (2009). Overlapping brain activity between episodic memory encoding and retrieval: Roles of the task-positive and task-negative networks. Neuroimage;49: 1145–1154.
  27. Lockhart, Robert (1990). "Levels of Processing: A Retrospective Commentary on a Framework for Memory Research". Canadian Journal of Psychology 44: 88. doi:10.1037/h0084237. http://www.psychologyib.com/uploads/1/1/7/5/11758934/_ib_psychology_-_craik_and_lockhart_1972.pdf. 
  28. Craik, F. I. M., & Watkins, M. J. (1973). The role of rehearsal in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12 (6), 599–607.
  29. Nickerson, R. S. (., & Adams, M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11(3, pp. 287-307)
  30. Rinck, M. (1999). Memory for everyday objects: Where are the digits on numerical keypads? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13(4), 329-350.
  31. Oliphant, G. W. (1983). Repetition and recency effects in word recognition. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35(3), 393-403
  32. Graf, P., Mandler, G., & Haden, P. E. (1982). Simulating amnesic symptoms in normal subjects. Science, 218(4578), 1243–1244.
  33. Hyde, Thomas S. & Jenkins, James J. (1973). Recall for words as a function of semantic, graphic, and syntactic orienting tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(5), 471-480
  34. Craik, F. I., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268-294.
  35. Schunk, Dale H. (2012). Learning theories : an educational perspective (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-707195-1. OCLC 688559444.  http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/688559444
  36. Katona, G. (1940). Organizing and memorizing. New York, NY, US: Columbia University Press.
  37. Bower, Gordon (1970). "Comparison of associative learning strategies". Psychon. Sci. 20 (2): 119–120. doi:10.3758/BF03335632. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03335632.pdf. 
  38. (in en) Psychology of Learning and Motivation. Academic Press. 1968. ISBN 978-0-08-086353-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=SVxyXuG73wwC&q=%22Simple+material%22+memory+milner+1966&pg=PA89. 
  39. Wiseman, S., & Neisser, U. (1974). Perceptual organization as a determinant of visual recognition memory. American Journal of Psychology, 87(4), 675-681.
  40. Goldstein, E. Bruce. (2018). Cognitive Psychology : Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. (5th ed.). Mason OH: Cengage. ISBN 978-1-337-67043-2. OCLC 1120695526.  http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1120695526
  41. Tulving, Endel; Craik, Fergus I. M. (5 May 2005). The Oxford Handbook of Memory. ISBN:9780190292867.
  42. Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325-331.
  43. Cann, A., & Ross, D. A. (1989). Olfactory stimuli as context cues in human memory. American Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 91-102.
  44. Smith, S. M. (1979). Remembering in and out of context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5(5), 460-471.
  45. Fisher, R. P., & Craik, F. I. (1977). Interaction between encoding and retrieval operations in cued recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3(6), 701-711.
  46. Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  47. Kanizsa, G. (1979). Organization in vision. New York: Praeger.
  48. McDaniel, Mark A; Waddill, Paula J; Einstein, Gilles O (1988). "A contextual account of the generation effect: A three-factor theory". Journal of Memory and Language 27 (5): 521–536. doi:10.1016/0749-596x(88)90023-x. ISSN 0749-596X.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0749-596x%2888%2990023-x
  49. Brown, Peter C.; Roediger, Henry L.; McDaniel, Mark A. (2014-01-31). Make It Stick. Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674419377. ISBN 978-0-674-41937-7.  https://dx.doi.org/10.4159%2F9780674419377
  50. Goldstein, E. Bruce, 1941- (2015). Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research and everyday experience (4th ed.). New york: Cengage learning. ISBN 978-1-285-76388-0. OCLC 885178247.  http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/885178247
  51. Klein, Stanley B. (2012-01-30). "Self, Memory, and the Self-Reference Effect: An Examination of Conceptual and Methodological Issues" (in en). Personality and Social Psychology Review 16 (3): 283–300. doi:10.1177/1088868311434214. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 22291045.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1088868311434214
  52. Kesebir, Selin; Oishi, Shigehiro (2010-09-20). "A Spontaneous Self-Reference Effect in Memory: Why Some Birthdays Are Harder to Remember Than Others" (in en). Psychological Science 21 (10): 1525–1531. doi:10.1177/0956797610383436. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 20855903.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797610383436
  53. Klein, Stanley B.; Kihlstrom, John F. (1986). "Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory.". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115 (1): 26–38. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.115.1.26. ISSN 1939-2222. PMID 2937872.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0096-3445.115.1.26
  54. Goldstien, E. Bruce (2015). Cognitive Psychology; Connecting the Mind, Research and Everyday Experience.. Stamford, CT. USA: Cengage Learning. pp. 122. ISBN 9781285763880. 
  55. Gutchess, Angela H.; Kensinger, Elizabeth A.; Yoon, Carolyn; Schacter, Daniel L. (November 2007). "Ageing and the self-reference effect in memory". Memory 15 (8): 822–837. doi:10.1080/09658210701701394. ISSN 0965-8211. PMID 18033620.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F09658210701701394
  56. "Definition of Salient". http://www.merriam-webster.com. 
  57. Krauel, Kerstin; Duzel, Emrah; Hinrichs, Hermann; Santel, Stephanie; Rellum, Thomas; Baving, Lioba (2007-06-15). "Impact of Emotional Salience on Episodic Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study" (in en). Biological Psychiatry 61 (12): 1370–1379. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.051. PMID 17210138.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biopsych.2006.08.051
  58. Cunningham, Sheila J.; Brady-Van den Bos, Mirjam; Gill, Lucy; Turk, David J. (2013-03-01). "Survival of the selfish: Contrasting self-referential and survival-based encoding" (in en). Consciousness and Cognition 22 (1): 237–244. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.12.005. PMID 23357241. https://rke.abertay.ac.uk/en/publications/1a5cf356-4dda-40e1-b1f9-b1764e7971ab. 
  59. Nairne, James S.; Thompson, Sarah R.; Pandeirada, Josefa N. S. (2007). "Adaptive memory: Survival processing enhances retention." (in en). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 33 (2): 263–273. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.2.263. ISSN 1939-1285. PMID 17352610.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.33.2.263
  60. Weinstein, Y.; Bugg, J. M.; Roediger, H. L. (2008-07-01). "Can the survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory processes?" (in en). Memory & Cognition 36 (5): 913–919. doi:10.3758/MC.36.5.913. ISSN 0090-502X. PMID 18630198.  https://dx.doi.org/10.3758%2FMC.36.5.913
  61. Karpicke, Jeffrey D. (2012-06-01). "Retrieval-Based Learning: Active Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning" (in en). Current Directions in Psychological Science 21 (3): 157–163. doi:10.1177/0963721412443552. ISSN 0963-7214.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721412443552
  62. Roediger, Henry L.; Karpicke, Jeffrey D. (2006). "Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention" (in en). Psychological Science 17 (3): 249–255. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 16507066.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2006.01693.x
  63. Hintzman, Douglas L. & Block, Richard A. (1971) Repetition and memory: Evidence for a multiple-trace hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 88(3), 297-306.
  64. Tulving, Endel; Pearlstone, Zena (August 1966). "Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words" (in en). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5 (4): 381–391. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80048-8.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-5371%2866%2980048-8
  65. Raaijmakers, J. G. W., Schiffrin, R. M. (1981). Search of associative memory. Psychological Review, 8(2), 98-134
  66. Rawson, Katherine A.; Zamary, Amanda (2019-04-01). "Why is free recall practice more effective than recognition practice for enhancing memory? Evaluating the relational processing hypothesis" (in en). Journal of Memory and Language 105: 141–152. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.01.002. ISSN 0749-596X. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X19300026. 
  67. Crowder, R. G. (1968). Intraserial repetition effects in immediate memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 446-451.
More
©Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons-Attribution ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Others
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
HandWiki
View Times: 2.9K
Entry Collection: HandWiki
Revision: 1 time (View History)
Update Date: 17 Nov 2022
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback