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HandWiki. Saṅkhāra. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/33631 (accessed on 07 October 2024).
HandWiki. Saṅkhāra. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/33631. Accessed October 07, 2024.
HandWiki. "Saṅkhāra" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/33631 (accessed October 07, 2024).
HandWiki. (2022, November 09). Saṅkhāra. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/33631
HandWiki. "Saṅkhāra." Encyclopedia. Web. 09 November, 2022.

Saṅkhāra (Pali; सङ्खार; Sanskrit: संस्कार or saṃskāra) is a term figuring prominently in Buddhism. The word means 'formations' or 'that which has been put together' and 'that which puts together'. In the first (passive) sense, saṅkhāra refers to conditioned phenomena generally but specifically to all mental "dispositions". These are called 'volitional formations' both because they are formed as a result of volition and because they are causes for the arising of future volitional actions. English translations for saṅkhāra in the first sense of the word include 'conditioned things,' 'determinations,' 'fabrications' and 'formations' (or, particularly when referring to mental processes, 'volitional formations'). In the second (active) sense of the word, saṅkhāra refers to karma (sankhara-khandha) that leads to conditioned arising, dependent origination. According to the Vijnanavada school, there are 51 samskaras or mental factors.

volition volitional 'volitional

1. Etymology and Meaning

Saṅkhāra is a Pali word that is cognate with the Sanskrit word saṃskāra.[1] The latter word is not a Vedic Sanskrit term, but found extensively in classical and epic era Sanskrit in all Indian philosophies.[1][2][3] Saṃskāra is found in the Hindu Upanishads such as in verse 2.6 of Kaushitaki Upanishad, 4.16.2–4 of Chandogya Upanishad, 6.3.1 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as well as mentioned by the ancient Indian scholar Panini and many others.[4] Saṅkhāra appears in the Buddhist Pitaka texts with a variety of meanings and contexts, somewhat different than the Upanishadic texts, particularly for anything to predicate impermanence.[4]

It is a complex concept, with no single-word English translation, that fuses "object and subject" as interdependent parts of each human's consciousness and epistemological process.[1] It connotes "impression, disposition, conditioning, forming, perfecting in one's mind, influencing one's sensory and conceptual faculty" as well as any "preparation, sacrament" that "impresses, disposes, influences or conditions" how one thinks, conceives or feels.[1][2][5]

2. Conditioned Things

In the first (passive) sense, saṅkhāra refers to "conditioned things" or "dispositions, mental imprint".[1][5][6] All aggregates in the world – physical or mental concomitants, and all phenomena, state early Buddhist texts, are conditioned things.[1] It can refer to any compound form in the universe whether a tree, a cloud, a human being, a thought or a molecule. All these are saṅkhāras, as well as everything that is physical and visible in the phenomenal world are conditioned things, or aggregate of mental conditions.[1] The Buddha taught that all saṅkhāras are impermanent and essenceless.[7][8] These subjective dispositions, states David Kalupahana, "prevented the Buddha from attempting to formulate an ultimately objective view of the world".[5]

Since conditioned things and dispositions are perceptions and do not have real essence, they are not reliable sources of pleasure and they are impermanent.[5] Understanding the significance of this reality is wisdom. This "conditioned things" sense of the word Saṅkhāra appears in Four Noble Truths and in Buddhist theory of dependent origination, that is how ignorance or misconceptions about impermanence and non-self leads to Taṇhā and rebirths.[9] The Samyutta Nikaya II.12.1 presents one such explanation,[9] as do other Pali texts.[10]

The last words of the Buddha, according to the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (in English and Pali), were "Disciples, this I declare to you: All conditioned things are subject to disintegration – strive on untiringly for your liberation." (Pali: "handa'dāni bhikkhave āmantayāmi vo, vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā ti.").[11][12]

3. Sankhara-Khandha

  The 12 Nidānas:  
Ignorance
Formations
Consciousness
Name & Form
Six Sense Bases
Contact
Feeling
Craving
Clinging
Becoming
Birth
Old Age & Death
 

In the second (active) sense, saṅkhāra (or saṅkhāra-khandha) refers to the form-creating faculty of mind. It is part of the doctrine of conditioned arising or dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda).[13][14] In this sense, the term Sankhara is karmically active volition or intention, which generates rebirth and influences the realm of rebirth.[13] Sankhara herein is synonymous with karma, and includes actions of the body, speech and mind.[13][15]

The saṅkhāra-khandha states that living beings are reborn (bhava, become) by means of actions of body and speech (kamma).[16] The Buddha stated that all volitional constructs are conditioned by ignorance (avijja) of impermanence and non-self.[17][18] It is this ignorance that leads to the origination of the sankharas and ultimately causes human suffering (dukkha).[19] The cessation of all such sankharas (sabba-saṅkhāra-nirodha) is synonymous with Awakening (bodhi), the attainment of nirvana. The end of conditioned arising or dependent origination in the karmic sense (Sankharas), yields the unconditioned phenomenon of nirvana.[20]

As the ignorance conditions the volitional formations, these formations condition, in turn, the consciousness (viññāna). The Buddha elaborated:

'What one intends, what one arranges, and what one obsesses about: This is a support for the stationing of consciousness. There being a support, there is a landing [or: an establishing] of consciousness. When that consciousness lands and grows, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. When there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair. Such is the origination of this entire mass of suffering & stress.'[21]

4. Mental Factors

Mental factors (Sanskrit: caitasika; Pali: cetasika; Tibetan Wylie: sems byung) are formations (Sanskrit: saṅkhāra) concurrent with mind (Sanskrit: citta).[22][23][24] They can be described as aspects of the mind that apprehend the quality of an object, and that have the ability to color the mind.[25]

5. Nibbana

The Buddha emphasized the need to purify dispositions rather than eliminate them completely.[26]

Kalupahana states that "the elimination of dispositions is epistemological suicide," as dispositions determine our perspectives. The development of one's personality in the direction of perfection or imperfection rests with one's dispositions.[27]

When preliminary nibbana with substrate occurs (that is, nibbana of a living being), constructive consciousness, that is, the house-builder, is completely destroyed and no new formations will be constructed. However, sankharas in the sense of constructed consciousness, which exists as a 'karmically-resultant-consciousness' (vipāka viññāna), continue to exist.[28] Each liberated individual produces no new karma, but preserves a particular individual personality which is the result of the traces of his or her karmic heritage. The very fact that there is a psycho-physical substrate during the remainder of an arahant's lifetime shows the continuing effect of karma.[28]

6. English Translations for the Term Sankhara

  • Activities (Ajahn Sucitto)
  • Concoctions (Santikaro)[29]
  • Conditions
  • Conditioning Factors
  • Conditioned things[30]
  • Determinations[31][32]
  • Fabrications[33]
  • Formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)[34]
  • Karmic formations[35]
  • Mental constructions
  • Preparations (Bhikkhu Katukurunde Ñāṇānanda)[36]
  • Volitional activities [37]
  • Volitional formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)

References

  1. Thomas William Rhys Davids; William Stede (1921). Pali-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 664–665. ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=0Guw2CnxiucC. 
  2. Monier Monier-Williams (1872). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1041. https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ. 
  3. Stephen Phillips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Columbia University Press. pp. 81–87. ISBN 978-0-231-14484-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=hlOrAgAAQBAJ. 
  4. Surendranath Dasgupta (1992). A History of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint, Original: Cambridge University Press, 1922). pp. 263 with footnote 1, 272–273. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC. 
  5. David J. Kalupahana (1992). A History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-8248-1402-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=SlDArya3YvcC. 
  6. Harold Coward (1990). Derrida and Indian Philosophy. State University of New York Press. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-0-7914-0500-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=a7ucoHEbtgAC. 
  7. Jonathan Walters (2015). Donald S. Lopez Jr.. ed. Buddhism in Practice: (Abridged Edition). Princeton University Press. pp. 110. ISBN 978-1-4008-8007-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=zaC4CgAAQBAJ. 
  8. N. Ross Reat; Edmund F. Perry (1991). A World Theology: The Central Spiritual Reality of Humankind. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-0-521-33159-3. https://archive.org/details/worldtheologycen0000reat. 
  9. Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe; Alexander Wynne (2002). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge. pp. 65–67. ISBN 978-1-134-62324-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=e9SFAgAAQBAJ. 
  10. John Clifford Holt (1995). Discipline: The Canonical Buddhism of the Vinayapiṭaka. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-81-208-1051-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=3gnDWr2CCWkC. 
  11. D.C. Wijeratna. "The First and Last Words of Lord Buddha". https://www.academia.edu/37451745. 
  12. Sister Vajira & Francis Story. "Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha (DN 16)". https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.16.1-6.vaji.html#fn-58. 
  13. Bhikkhu Bodhi (2005). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Simon & Schuster. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-0-86171-973-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=MEA6AwAAQBAJ. 
  14. William S Waldron (2003). The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. Routledge. pp. 19–23. ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=x9iCAgAAQBAJ. 
  15. William S Waldron (2003). The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. Routledge. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=x9iCAgAAQBAJ. 
  16. See, for instance, SN 12.2 (Thanissaro, 1997b), where the Buddha states: 'And what are fabrications? These three are fabrications: bodily fabrications, verbal fabrications, mental fabrications. These are called fabrications.' http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.002.than.html
  17. William S Waldron (2003). The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. Routledge. pp. 10. ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=x9iCAgAAQBAJ. 
  18. Mathieu Boisvert (1995). The Five Aggregates: Understanding Theravada Psychology and Soteriology. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 93–98. ISBN 978-0-88920-257-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=mUTRBtvSUaUC. 
  19. William S Waldron (2003). The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. Routledge. pp. 190-191 notes 2-5, Chapter 1. ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=x9iCAgAAQBAJ. 
  20. William S Waldron (2003). The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. Routledge. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=x9iCAgAAQBAJ. 
  21. SN 12.38 (Thanissaro, 1995). http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.038.than.html
  22. Guenther (1975), Kindle Location 321.
  23. Kunsang (2004), p. 23.
  24. Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 456.
  25. Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 564-568.
  26. David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. Motilal Banarsidass, 2005, page 48.
  27. David Kalupahana, "A History of Buddhist Philosophy." University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 75.
  28. Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 207.
  29. Leigh Brasington http://www.leighb.com/intv0405.htm
  30. See Piyadassi (1999). This is also suggested, for instance, by Bodhi (2000), p. 46, who in writing about one sense of saṅkhāra states: "In the widest sense, saṅkhāra comprises all conditioned things, everything arisen from a combination of conditions." http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.060.piya.html
  31. According to Bodhi (2000), p. 44, 'determinations' was used by Ven. Ñāṇamoli in his Majjhima Nikaya manuscripts that ultimately were edited by Bodhi. (In the published volume, Bodhi changed Ñāṇamoli's word choice to "formations.")
  32. According to Nanavira Thera 'the word sankhāra, in all contexts, means 'something that something else depends on', that is to say a determination (determinant).' (Notes on Dhamma: Sankhāra) http://nanavira.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=55&Itemid=84
  33. See, for instance, Thanissaro (1997b). http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.002.than.html
  34. See the extended discussion at Bodhi (2000), pp. 44-47. Other translations considered by but ultimately rejected by Bodhi include "constructions" (p. 45) and "activities" (p. 45, especially to highlight the karmic aspect of saṅkhāra).
  35. Milinda's questions. Sacred books of the Buddhists;. I.B. Horner (trans.). London: Luzac. 1963. 
  36. Ñāṇānanda, Katukurunde, 1988-1991, The Mind Stilled: 33 Lectures on Nibbāna, online at http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net. Bhikkhu Ñāṇānanda also notes, "in the ancient Indian society, one of the primary senses of the word saṅkhāra was the make-up done by actors and actresses" (http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net/files/eng/books/ms/nibbana_the_mind_stilled_I.pdf , p. 109). http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net
  37. Gethin, p. 136
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