1000/1000
Hot
Most Recent
Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment.
Technique | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rate | Advantages/Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ozonation | Powdered sun-dried herbs and spices | AFs | Ozone concentration = 3 ppm/time 210 min | Highest level of aflatoxin reduction: 93.75% for licorice 90% for peppermint |
Advantages: Fumigation with Ozone: 3 ppm/time: 280 min— Sanitation and reduction of microbial load; Active against a wide range of microorganisms, viruses, Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, spores, and fungi; Instability of Ozone—transformation into O2-O3 has a Gras status; The major biologically active constituent attributed to the medical properties of the chamomile flower was increased. Disadvantages: Reduction of chamomile essential oil by 57.14% and peppermint by 26.67%. |
[7] |
Ozonation | Parboiled Rice | Mycotoxins | Parboiled rice grains treated with ozone | Significant reduction of mycotoxins contamination, regardless of the time and period of application and the mycotoxin evaluated | Advantages: After soaking samples in ozone for 3 and 5 h: Higher head rice yield, luminosity and hardness, decreased cooking time, percentage of defective grains, and soluble protein. |
[8] |
Ozonation | Aqueous medium | TrichotheceneMycotoxins (TC) |
Saturated aqueous ozone (≈25 ppm) | Degradation of TC mycotoxins to materials that were not detected by UV or MS | Disadvantages: Ozone is a toxic gas, so all preparations were conducted in a fume hood. |
[9] |
At lower levels (≈0.25 ppm) of aqueous ozone | Intermediate products were observed | |||||
Ozonation was sensitive to pH. | ||||||
pH 4 to 6 | Maximum reduction rates | |||||
pH 9 | No reaction | |||||
Ozonation | Wheat | DON | ↓ initial concentrations of DON solution treated with ↑ concentrations of ozone, and ↑ times | ↑ DON degradation rates | Advantages: No significant changes in the protein content, sedimentation value, pasting properties, and water absorption; Improvement in the flour quality. Slight ↑ in dough development time and stability time; No decrease in the quality of wheat for end-users; Products produced from ozone-treated wheat flour (noodles) have a longer shelf life, lower darkening rate, and microbial growth; No harmful residues, easy to use, and no waste. Disadvantages: Ozone treatment in solution is faster than gaseous treatment of scabbed wheat. |
[10] |
In Solution: Processing time = 30 s; Ozone concentration = 1 mg L−1 |
Degradation rate of DON = 54.2% | |||||
In scabbed wheat: Processing time = 12h; Moisture content = 17%; Ozone gas concentration = 60 mg L−1 |
Degradation rate of DON = 57.3% | |||||
Gaseous ozone | Effective against DON in scabbed wheat | |||||
↑ Ozone concentration and ↑ processing time | ↑ Degradation rate of DON | |||||
Ozonation | Grains | AFs | Ozone concentration = 47,800 ppm The average retention time = 1.8 min. Screw Conveyor System |
Decreased Aspergillus flavus counts in a single pass through the screw conveyor: ↓ 96%; Reduction rate of aflatoxin: 20–30% |
Advantages: Treatments with humidified and dry ozone: similar effects on fungi and insects; ↑ residence time: ↑ insect mortality and mold reduction. Disadvantages: The total electricity cost for running the equipment at maximum load was USD 3.98/h based on an electricity rate of USD 0.11/kWh; The reduction was not sufficient enough to be of commercial value; Electricity and equipment are needed. |
[11] |
Ozonation | Rice | Filamentous fungi | An application of 0.393 kg O3 m−3 rice | Different concentrations of ozone along the silo: 10−1, 10−2, and 10−3 (mol m−3) for the portions IP, CP, and SP, respectively; | Advantages: No damage to grain quality; No significant alteration of the quality of rice, starch modifications, lipid peroxidation, protein profile, and microstructure alterations. |
[12] |
highest concentration of ozone in the inferior part of the silo at the ozone inlet = Strong fungi reduction | ||||||
Nixtamalization | Maize | AF and Fumonisins | Soaking in a solution of:
|
AF: up to 90% | Advantages:
|
|
Fumonisins: up to 80% | [13] | |||||
Nixtamalization | Maize | AF | Traditional Nixtamalization Process-TNP | Not efficient enough to eliminate aflatoxins present in contaminated maize | Disadvantages:
|
[14] |
Nixtamalization | Tortilla | AFB1 | Alkaline pH of the maize-dough = 10.2, Resting time = 30–40 min of resting at room temperature | AFB1: 100% | [15] | |
Nixtamalization | Maize and Sorghum | FBs, DON, NIV, and ZEN | The use of 5 cooking ingredients—1 g of cooking ingredient/400 mL of water at 92 °C for 40 min | Advantages: Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are good alternatives to calcium hydroxide; Sodium hydroxide could be used in the industrial nixtamalization process. Disadvantages: Environmental concerns about using calcium hydroxide; The high pH of the byproducts and wastewater when using calcium hydroxide; Calcium chloride is not effective in reducing mycotoxins. |
[16] | |
Calcium chloride as a cooking ingredient | The least effect on mycotoxin reduction | |||||
Ammoniation | Groundnut press cake | AFs | Ammoniation at (0.5–2.0%) to feed materials/moisture content: 12–16%, at 45–55 psi, and at 80–100 °C for 20–60 min | Reductions in the levels of aflatoxin of between 96% and 99% | Disadvantages: Insufficient information was available to conclude on the safety and efficacy of the proposed decontamination process; No evidence that the proposed process is sufficient to ensure irreversibility in acid medium (GIT). |
[17] |
Ammoniation | Wheat kernels | DON | Treatment with Ammonia vapor at 90 °C for 2 h | Degradation of DON >75% | Advantages: In silico evaluation estimated a decrease in toxicity and biological effects. |
[18] |
With an initial level of DON up to 2000 μg/kg | Treatment efficacy is not affected | |||||
Ammoniation | Corn | AFs | The use of aqua-ammonia | Effective and inexpensive | Advantages: Effective and inexpensive, and it can be applied on the farm at low cost by sealing the grain in plastic. Disadvantages: Corn treated with ammonia turns dark because the sugar (altrose) is caramelized and the grain temperature increases by about 10 °F at the time of treatment; Not an FDA-approved process and treated corn cannot be legally shipped out of state;
|
[19] |
Ammoniation | Maize | AFs | The effect of ammonia | More destructive to aflatoxins G1 and G2 compared with aflatoxin B1 and B2 | [20] | |
Highest detoxification rate | Aflatoxins G1 (95%) Aflatoxin G2 (93%) |
|||||
Lowest degradation rate | Aflatoxin B1 (85%) Aflatoxin B2 (83%) |
|||||
Acid | Selected Nuts | AFs | Moisture Levels: walnut (10 ± 3 and 16 ± 3%); pistachio (10 ± 3%); peanuts (10 ± 3%) Citric, Lactic and propionic acid at 9% Time: 15 min |
Reduction rate of aflatoxins: citric acid (99%); lactic acid (99.9%); propionic acid (96.07%) | Advantages: Food-grade organic acids do not affect the nuts’ quality. |
[21] |
Citric acid | Considerable reduction of the 4 aflatoxins; No formation of hazardous residues | |||||
Lactic acid | Significant reduction of AFB1 and Total Afs; Increase in AFB2 and AFG2; Lactic acid converts AFB1 into AFB2 (less toxic) | |||||
Propionic acid | More efficient to reduce AFB1 | |||||
Acid | Feeds/Foods | DON | 5% solutions of lactic acid and citric acid | Reduction of the concentration of common trichothecene mycotoxins, especially DON and its derivate 15Ac-DON | [22] | |
5% solutions of lactic acid and citric acid | No or only small effects on zearalenone, fumonisins, and culmorin | |||||
Lactic acid treatment | Decreased concentration of nivalenol | |||||
Acid | - | AFB1 | 1 M citric acid—at Room temperature—Time: 96 h | conversion of AFB1 to AFB2a >97% | Advantages: Organic acids have few detrimental effects; Under these conditions, > 71% of AFB1 was hydrated to AFB2a and did not show any reversion to the parent compound after being transferred to a neutral solution; Conversion of AFB1 to AFB2a in a gastric environment can be enhanced by the addition of citric acid. Disadvantages: Discoloration of various types of meats including beef, pork, and fish along with minor alterations in odor and taste. |
[23] |
0.1 and 1 M citric acid—at boiling temperature—Time: 20 min |
Conversion of AFB1 to AFB2a > 98% |
Technique | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rate | Advantages/Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Photocatalysis | Wheat | DON | In solution: DON concentration = 10 μg/mL, time = 60 min, simulated sunlight: using NaYF4:Yb,Tm@TiO2 (6 mg/mL), pH = 8.0 | Rate of DON degradation ≈ 100% | Disadvantages: Decreased efficiency caused by shielding effect. |
[28] |
3 photocatalytic degradation products were identified | C15H20O8, C15H20O7, and C15H20O5 | |||||
In wheat:1 mL of 50 μg/mL DON standard solution + 5 g wheat-soaked and naturally dried. | Degradation rate at 120 min = 69.8% | |||||
Toxic grains + UCNPs aqueous solution/ratio 1:1 | ||||||
After 1 h of adsorption equilibrium, the wheat samples were illuminated by Xe lamp (200–2500 nm) for 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min, respectively | ||||||
Photocatalysis | Wheat | DON | In wheat: The dosage of photocatalyst UCNP@TiO2 was 8 mg mL−1 Time: 90 minRatio of wheat to liquid: 1:2 | Degradation rate at 90 min = 72.8% | Advantages:
|
[35] |
Plasma | Corn | AFB1 | CAP is generated by a Surface Barrier Discharge (SBD) system operating in ambient air, yielding RONS by a generation of non-equilibrium atmospheric pressure plasma in ambient air | Reduction rate of AFB1 after 60 s: 96% | Advantages:
|
[36] |
Initial concentration of AFB1 = 35 μg/ml | 100% AFB1 decontamination in less than 120 s of treatment | |||||
Plasma | Oat Flour | T-2 and HT-2 |
Low-pressure dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma/different gases/time: 10–30 min | Disadvantages:
|
[37] | |
Exposure to nitrogen for 30 min | The maximal reduction of T-2 toxin degradation (43.25%) | |||||
Exposure to nitrogen for 30 min | The maximal reduction of HT-2 toxin degradation (29.23%) | |||||
Mean degradation rate of T-2 toxins in all experiments | 25.01% | |||||
Mean degradation rate of HT-2 toxins in all experiments | 20.98% | |||||
Oxygen and air as working gas | No significant reduction of T-2 and HT-2 | |||||
Plasma | Maize | AFB1 and FB1 | Pulsed dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) jet: | Advantages:
|
[38] | |
Spiked maize grains are placed at 12 mm beneath plasma jet—Time = 10 min | ||||||
Concentration of AFB1 = 1.25 ng/g | Degradation rate after 10 min of plasma exposure = 65% | |||||
Concentration of FB1= 259 ng/g | Degradation rate after 10 min of plasma exposure = 64% | |||||
Plasma | Roasted coffee | OTA | Treatment with cold plasma: Imput power = 30 W/output voltage = 850 V/Helium flow = 1.5 L/min for 30 min | OTA reduction rate = 50% | [39] | |
Using the brine shrimp (Artemia salina) lethality assay | Untreated roasted coffee = Toxic Treated roasted coffee = Slightly Toxic | |||||
Pulsed Light | Red pepper powder | AFB1, Total AF, OTA | The highest fluence applied (9.1 J/cm2, 61 pulses, 20 s) | 2.7, 3.1, and 4.1 log CFU/g reduction of yeasts, molds, and total plate counts (TPC), where initial microbial loads were 4.6, 5.5, and 6.5 log CFU/g, respectively |
|
[40] |
The highest fluence applied (9.1 J/cm2, 61 pulses, 20 s) | A maximum reduction of 67.2, 50.9, and 36.9% of (AFB1), (AF), and (OTA) was detected, respectively | |||||
Pulsed Light | Solid medium | AFB1 and AFB2 | PL at different initial concentrations of AFB1 (229.9, 30.7 and 17.8 μg/kg) and AFB2 (248.2, 32.2 and 19.5 μg/kg) and irradiation intensities (2.86, 1.60 and 0.93 W/cm2) of PL | The degradation of AFB1 and AFB2 followed the second-order reaction kinetic model well (R2 > 0.97); The degradation rate was proportional to the intensities of PL irradiation and the initial concentrations of aflatoxins | [41] | |
Pulsed Light | Rice | AFB1 and AFB2 | PL treatment of 0.52 J/cm2/pulse for 80 s to rough rice | AFB1 reduction rate = 75% AFB2 reduction rate = 39.2% | Advantages:
|
[42] |
PL treatment of 0.52 J/cm2/pulse for 15 s to rice bran | AFB1 reduction rate = 90.3%AFB2 reduction rate = 86.7% | |||||
UV-C Irradiation | Brown, black, and red rice (Moisture content = 13%) | Aflatoxin (B1,B2, G1, and G2), DON, OTA, and ZEN | In black and red rice–the UV-C irradiation treatment (dosage of 2.06 kJ/cm2) for 1 h | Effective in fungal decontamination, photo-degradation of mycotoxins | Advantages: (dosage of 2.06 kJ/cm2) for 1 h:
(dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2) for 3 h:
|
[32] |
In black and red rice—the UV-C irradiation treatment (dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2) for 3 h | Increased the efficiency of fungal decontamination and reduced mycotoxins | |||||
In brown rice, the treatment conditions need to be optimized since only the dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2 | Reduction of fungal contamination | |||||
UV-C Irradiation | Maize and peanut | AFB1 | After ten days of incubation and irradiation treatment delivering a dose of 8370 mJ/cm2 | The highest reduction of A. flavus count was 4.4 log CFU/g in maize and 3.1 log CFU/g in peanut | Advantages:
|
[43] |
Depending on the treatment | AFB1 reduction level:In maize ranged from 17 to 43% In peanut ranged from 14 to 51% | |||||
UV-C Irradiation | Peanut | AFB1 | The darkening of the UV indicator (AgCl) | Linearly proportional to the UV dosage from 0 to 120 mJ/cm2 delivered on peanuts | Advantages:
|
[44] |
Rotation at 11 rpm in the cylindrical chamber | Significant improvement in UV uniformity | |||||
UV irradiation: 2.3 mW/cm2 UV-C for 2 h with rotation at 11 rpm | Reduction percentage by 23.4% (from 14.3 ± 3.4% to 17.7 ± 4.5%) | |||||
UV irradiation: 2.3 mW/cm2 UV-C for 2 h with rotation at 11 rpm | Increased AFB1 degradation rate from 60.8 ± 15.3 pmol g−1h−1 to 75.0 ± 10.9 pmol g−1h−1 | |||||
Gamma Irradiation | Maize | AF and OTA |
Gamma irradiation dose of 6.0 kGy | Completely inhibited the growth of the two molds | [45] | |
Gamma irradiation dose of 4.5 kGy | Reduced the production of their mycotoxins | |||||
Gamma irradiation dose of 20 kGy | Maximum reduction rate is as follows:
|
|||||
Gamma Irradiation | Wheat flourgrape juiceandwine | OTA | In wheat flour, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | OTA reduction rate = 24% | Advantages:
|
[46] |
In grape juice, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | OTA reduction rate = 12% | |||||
In wine, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | OTA reduction rate = 23% | |||||
Gamma Irradiation | Sorghum | OTA and AFB1 | Gamma irradiation dose of 3 kGy | Sufficient to eliminate 90% of the natural fungal load of sorghum | [47] | |
At a radiation dose of 10 kGy | The maximum reduction rate of AFB1 = 59% | |||||
At a radiation dose of 10 kGy | The maximum reduction rate of OTA = 32% | |||||
Extrusion | Whole grain triticale flour | DON, 3- and 15-AcDON, HT-2, TEN, AME | Optimal parameters of co-rotating twin-screw extruder for lowering the concentration of each investigated mycotoxins in naturally contaminated flour were: SS = 650 rpm, FR = 30 kg/h, MC = 20 g/100 g | Reduction rate of mycotoxins: DON: 9.5%; 3-AcDON: 27.8%; 15-AcDON: 28.4%; HT-2: 60.5%; TEN: 12.3%; AME: 85.7% | [48] | |
Extrusion | Cornmeal | AF: B1, B2, G1, G2 | Extrusion in the absence of high-amylose cornstarch | A reduction in aflatoxins level: (B1: 83.7%, B2: 80.5%, G1: 74.7%, and G2: 87.1%) | Disadvantages:
|
[49] |
Extrusion in the presence of high-amylose cornstarch |
Higher aflatoxins reductions were observed: (B1-89.9%, B2-88.6%, G1-75.0%, and G2-89.9%) |
|||||
Electrolyzed Water | Wheat grains | DON | For AcidEW | Advantages:
|
[50] | |
pH 5.5 | Optimal pH for DON elimination | |||||
pH 2.5 | Optimal pH for fungal reduction | |||||
For AlkEW | ||||||
pH 9.5 | Optimal pH for DON elimination | |||||
pH from 8.5 to 12.5 |
Strong elimination activity on fungi |
|||||
Electron Beam | Red pepper powder | OTA | Treatment at 6 kGy |
|
Advantages:
|
[51] |
Treatment at 10 kGy for 23 s |
|
|||||
Treatment at 30 kGy |
|
|||||
Milling | Maize | Mycotoxins | Grain cleaning |
|
Advantages:
|
[52] |
Milling | Maize | B-series fumonisins (FBs) | Grain cleaning |
|
Advantages:
|
[53] |
Dry-degermination process of uncleaned kernels | Reduction rates:
|
|||||
Tempering degermination Process of uncleaned kernels | Reduction rates:
|
Treatment | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rates | Advantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria: ZEN-detoxifying Bacillus (ZDB) strains | Maize | ZEN | The highest level of ZEN degradation | B2 strain-reduction rate = 56% |
|
[63] |
B2 strain detoxifies other mycotoxins | Reduction rates: AFB1: 3.8%; DON: 25%; FB1: 39.5%; T2 toxin: 9.5% |
|
||||
Bacteria: Bacillus licheniformis spore CotA laccaseapplication of immobilized laccase in contaminated corn meal |
Corn meal | ZEN | Treatment with immobilized CotA laccase onto chitosan microspheres for 12-h | Degradation rate: 90% |
|
[64] |
Treatment with free CotA laccase for 12-h | Degradation rate: 70% | |||||
Reuse of immobilized enzymes for 5 cycles | Decreased degradation rate on each after each cycle: Cycle 1: 90%; Cycle 2: 77%; Cycle 3: 54%; Cycle 4: 30%; Cycle 5: 21% |
|||||
Bacteria—Fermentation: Lactic acid bacteria | Wheat-based products | DON 15 -AcDON AOH D3G, toxins H-2 and HT-2: Enniatin ENNB1 |
Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 strain | The strongest mycotoxins decontamination effect |
|
[65] |
Prolonged fermentation at 35 °C for 48 h with Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 strain | DON: 44–69% 15-AcDON, AOH, D3G, toxins H-2 and HT-2: Removal Enniatin: 5–70% ENNB1: complete removal |
|||||
Combined fermentation (Lactic acid bacteria 7 (JCM 1149) and Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 (DSM 20284)) | Complete elimination or effective reduction of DON: 79–100% | |||||
Enzyme | Maize | FB | FB degradation during dry milling of maize |
|
[66] | |
Fumonisin esterase FumD | Enzyme concentration: 40 U/kg | Reduction rates FBT:
|
||||
Yeast | Wheat grains and bread | Fusarium Mycotoxins: DON, NIV ZEN |
Bread prepared by baking with the addition of an inoculum of the test yeast | Reduction rates: DON: 16.4% to 33.4%; NIV:18.5% to 36.2%; ZEA: 14.3% to 35.4% |
|
[67] |
Yeast | Peanut meal | AFB1 | Peanut samples are heated at 40, 60, 80, 100, or 110 °C for 10 min | [68] | ||
The residual rates after heat treatment at the following temperature for 10 min: (T:% of residual AFB1 | 80 °C: 61.08%; 100 °C: 63.46%; 110 °C: 49.63% | |||||
The residual rates after fermentation by Z. rouxii: (Temperature: % of residual AFB1) | (40 °C:32.73%)-(60 °C:20.85%)-(80 °C:16.18%)-(100 °C:5.13%)-(110 °C:5.10%) | |||||
100 °C | The optimal temperature achieved the highest reduction rate | |||||
Peanut samples are heated at 100 °C for 5, 10, 15, or 20 min | ||||||
The residual rates after heating at 100 °C for different times: (time: % of residual AFB1) | (5 min: 21.06%)-(10 min: 5.13%)-(15 min: 2.48%)-(20 min: 2.44%) | |||||
15 min | The optimal time | |||||
Optimal treatment (100 °C -15 min): | Residual % of AFB1: 2.48% |