Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment.
Treatment | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rates | Advantages | References |
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Bacteria: ZEN-detoxifying Bacillus (ZDB) strains | Maize | ZEN | The highest level of ZEN degradation | B2 strain-reduction rate = 56% |
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[63][116] |
B2 strain detoxifies other mycotoxins | Reduction rates: AFB1: 3.8%; DON: 25%; FB1: 39.5%; T2 toxin: 9.5% |
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Bacteria: Bacillus licheniformis spore CotA laccaseapplication of immobilized laccase in contaminated corn meal |
Corn meal | ZEN | Treatment with immobilized CotA laccase onto chitosan microspheres for 12-h | Degradation rate: 90% |
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[64][117] |
Treatment with free CotA laccase for 12-h | Degradation rate: 70% | |||||
Reuse of immobilized enzymes for 5 cycles | Decreased degradation rate on each after each cycle: Cycle 1: 90%; Cycle 2: 77%; Cycle 3: 54%; Cycle 4: 30%; Cycle 5: 21% |
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Bacteria—Fermentation: Lactic acid bacteria | Wheat-based products | DON 15 -AcDON AOH D3G, toxins H-2 and HT-2: Enniatin ENNB1 |
Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 strain | The strongest mycotoxins decontamination effect |
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[65][118] |
Prolonged fermentation at 35 °C for 48 h with Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 strain | DON: 44–69% 15-AcDON, AOH, D3G, toxins H-2 and HT-2: Removal Enniatin: 5–70% ENNB1: complete removal |
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Combined fermentation (Lactic acid bacteria 7 (JCM 1149) and Pediococcus acidilactici LUHS29 (DSM 20284)) | Complete elimination or effective reduction of DON: 79–100% | |||||
Enzyme | Maize | FB | FB degradation during dry milling of maize |
Technique | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rate | Advantages/Disadvantages | References |
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Ozonation | Powdered sun-dried herbs and spices | AFs | Ozone concentration = 3 ppm/time 210 min | Highest level of aflatoxin reduction: 93.75% for licorice 90% for peppermint |
Advantages: Fumigation with Ozone: 3 ppm/time: 280 min— Sanitation and reduction of microbial load; Active against a wide range of microorganisms, viruses, Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, spores, and fungi; Instability of Ozone—transformation into O2-O3 has a Gras status; The major biologically active constituent attributed to the medical properties of the chamomile flower was increased. Disadvantages: Reduction of chamomile essential oil by 57.14% and peppermint by 26.67%. |
[7][44] |
Ozonation | Parboiled Rice | Mycotoxins | Parboiled rice grains treated with ozone | Significant reduction of mycotoxins contamination, regardless of the time and period of application and the mycotoxin evaluated | Advantages: After soaking samples in ozone for 3 and 5 h: Higher head rice yield, luminosity and hardness, decreased cooking time, percentage of defective grains, and soluble protein. |
[8][45] |
Ozonation | Aqueous medium | TrichotheceneMycotoxins (TC) |
Saturated aqueous ozone (≈25 ppm) | Degradation of TC mycotoxins to materials that were not detected by UV or MS | Disadvantages: Ozone is a toxic gas, so all preparations were conducted in a fume hood. |
[9][46] |
At lower levels (≈0.25 ppm) of aqueous ozone | Intermediate products were observed | |||||
Ozonation was sensitive to pH. | ||||||
pH 4 to 6 | Maximum reduction rates | |||||
pH 9 | No reaction | |||||
Ozonation | Wheat | DON | ↓ initial concentrations of DON solution treated with ↑ concentrations of ozone, and ↑ times | ↑ DON degradation rates | Advantages: No significant changes in the protein content, sedimentation value, pasting properties, and water absorption; Improvement in the flour quality. Slight ↑ in dough development time and stability time; No decrease in the quality of wheat for end-users; Products produced from ozone-treated wheat flour (noodles) have a longer shelf life, lower darkening rate, and microbial growth; No harmful residues, easy to use, and no waste. Disadvantages: Ozone treatment in solution is faster than gaseous treatment of scabbed wheat. |
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18 | ||||||
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[ | ||||||
37 | ||||||
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With an initial level of DON up to 2000 μg/kg | ||||||
Treatment efficacy is not affected | ||||||
Ammoniation | Corn | AFs | The use of aqua-ammonia | Effective and inexpensive | Advantages: Effective and inexpensive, and it can be applied on the farm at low cost by sealing the grain in plastic. Disadvantages: Corn treated with ammonia turns dark because the sugar (altrose) is caramelized and the grain temperature increases by about 10 °F at the time of treatment; Not an FDA-approved process and treated corn cannot be legally shipped out of state;
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[19][55] |
[ | ||||||
23 | ||||||
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[ | ||||||
59 | ||||||
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0.1 and 1 M citric acid—at boiling temperature—Time: 20 min |
Conversion of AFB1 to AFB2a > 98% |
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[ | 66 | ] | [ | 119 | ] | |
Fumonisin esterase FumD | Enzyme concentration: 40 U/kg | Reduction rates FBT:
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Yeast | Wheat grains and bread | Fusarium Mycotoxins: DON, NIV ZEN |
Bread prepared by baking with the addition of an inoculum of the test yeast | Reduction rates: DON: 16.4% to 33.4%; NIV:18.5% to 36.2%; ZEA: 14.3% to 35.4% |
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[67][120] |
Yeast | Peanut meal | AFB1 | Peanut samples are heated at 40, 60, 80, 100, or 110 °C for 10 min | [68][121] | ||
The residual rates after heat treatment at the following temperature for 10 min: (T:% of residual AFB1 | 80 °C: 61.08%; 100 °C: 63.46%; 110 °C: 49.63% | |||||
The residual rates after fermentation by Z. rouxii: (Temperature: % of residual AFB1) | (40 °C:32.73%)-(60 °C:20.85%)-(80 °C:16.18%)-(100 °C:5.13%)-(110 °C:5.10%) | |||||
100 °C | The optimal temperature achieved the highest reduction rate | |||||
Peanut samples are heated at 100 °C for 5, 10, 15, or 20 min | ||||||
The residual rates after heating at 100 °C for different times: (time: % of residual AFB1) | (5 min: 21.06%)-(10 min: 5.13%)-(15 min: 2.48%)-(20 min: 2.44%) | |||||
15 min | The optimal time | |||||
Optimal treatment (100 °C -15 min): | Residual % of AFB1: 2.48% |
Technique | Feeds/Foods | Contaminants | Experimental Parameters | Reduction Rate | Advantages/Disadvantages | References | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Photocatalysis | Wheat | DON | In solution: DON concentration = 10 μg/mL, time = 60 min, simulated sunlight: using NaYF4:Yb,Tm@TiO2 (6 mg/mL), pH = 8.0 | Rate of DON degradation ≈ 100% | Disadvantages: Decreased efficiency caused by shielding effect. |
[28][69] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3 photocatalytic degradation products were identified | C15H20O8, C15H20O7, and C15H20O5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In wheat:1 mL of 50 μg/mL DON standard solution + 5 g wheat-soaked and naturally dried. | Degradation rate at 120 min = 69.8% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Toxic grains + UCNPs aqueous solution/ratio 1:1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
After 1 h of adsorption equilibrium, the wheat samples were illuminated by Xe lamp (200–2500 nm) for 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min, respectively | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Photocatalysis | Wheat | DON | In wheat: The dosage of photocatalyst UCNP@TiO2 was 8 mg mL−1 Time: 90 minRatio of wheat to liquid: 1:2 | Degradation rate at 90 min = 72.8% | Advantages:
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[35][76] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Plasma | Corn | AFB1 | CAP is generated by a Surface Barrier Discharge (SBD) system operating in ambient air, yielding RONS by a generation of non-equilibrium atmospheric pressure plasma in ambient air | Reduction rate of AFB1 after 60 s: 96% | Advantages:
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[36][77] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | 10 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Initial concentration of AFB1 | ] | [ | 47] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
= 35 μg/ml | 100% AFB | 1 | decontamination in less than 120 s of treatment | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Plasma | Oat Flour | T-2 and HT-2In Solution: Processing time = 30 s; Ozone concentration = 1 mg L−1 |
Degradation rate of DON = 54.2% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Low-pressure dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma/different gases/time: 10–30 min | Disadvantages: |
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[37][78] | In scabbed wheat: Processing time = 12h; Moisture content = 17%; Ozone gas concentration = 60 mg L−1 |
Degradation rate of DON = 57.3% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Exposure to nitrogen for 30 min | The maximal reduction of T-2 toxin degradation (43.25%) | Gaseous ozone | Effective against DON in scabbed wheat | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Exposure to nitrogen for 30 min | ↑ Ozone concentration and ↑ processing time | ↑ Degradation rate of DON | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The maximal reduction of HT-2 toxin degradation (29.23%) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mean degradation rate of T-2 toxins in all experiments | 25.01% | Ozonation | Grains | AFs | Ozone concentration = 47,800 ppm The average retention time = 1.8 min. Screw Conveyor System |
Decreased Aspergillus flavus counts in a single pass through the screw conveyor: ↓ 96%; Reduction rate of aflatoxin: 20–30% |
Advantages: Treatments with humidified and dry ozone: similar effects on fungi and insects; ↑ residence time: ↑ insect mortality and mold reduction. Disadvantages: The total electricity cost for running the equipment at maximum load was USD 3.98/h based on an electricity rate of USD 0.11/kWh; The reduction was not sufficient enough to be of commercial value; Electricity and equipment are needed. |
[11][48] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mean degradation rate of HT-2 toxins in all experiments | 20.98% | Ozonation | Rice | Filamentous fungi | An application of 0.393 kg O3 m−3 rice | Different concentrations of ozone along the silo: 10−1, 10−2, and 10−3 (mol m−3) for the portions IP, CP, and SP, respectively; | Advantages: No damage to grain quality; No significant alteration of the quality of rice, starch modifications, lipid peroxidation, protein profile, and microstructure alterations. |
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[ | 12 | ] | [ | 49 | ] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Oxygen and air as working gas | No significant reduction of T-2 and HT-2 | highest concentration of ozone in the inferior part of the silo at the ozone inlet = Strong fungi reduction | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Plasma | Maize | AFB1 and FB1 | Pulsed dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) jet: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Advantages: |
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[38][79] | Nixtamalization | Maize | AF and Fumonisins | Soaking in a solution of:
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AF: up to 90% | Advantages:
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Spiked maize grains are placed at 12 mm beneath plasma jet—Time = 10 min |
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Fumonisins: up to 80% | [ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13 | ] | [50] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Concentration of AFB | 1 | = 1.25 ng/g | Degradation rate after 10 min of plasma exposure = 65% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Concentration of FB1= 259 ng/g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Degradation rate after 10 min of plasma exposure = 64% | Nixtamalization | Maize | AF | Traditional Nixtamalization Process-TNP | Not efficient enough to eliminate aflatoxins present in contaminated maize | Disadvantages:
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Plasma |
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Roasted coffee |
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[14][51] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
OTA | Treatment with cold plasma: Imput power = 30 W/output voltage = 850 V/Helium flow = 1.5 L/min for 30 min | OTA reduction rate = 50% | [ | 39 | ][80] | Nixtamalization | Tortilla | AFB | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1 | Alkaline pH of the maize-dough = 10.2, Resting time = 30–40 min of resting at room temperature | AFB1: 100% | [15][52] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Using the brine shrimp (Artemia salina) lethality assay | Untreated roasted coffee = Toxic Treated roasted coffee = Slightly Toxic | Nixtamalization | Maize and Sorghum | FBs, DON, NIV, and ZEN | The use of 5 cooking ingredients—1 g of cooking ingredient/400 mL of water at 92 °C for 40 min | Advantages: Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are good alternatives to calcium hydroxide; Sodium hydroxide could be used in the industrial nixtamalization process. Disadvantages: Environmental concerns about using calcium hydroxide; The high pH of the byproducts and wastewater when using calcium hydroxide; Calcium chloride is not effective in reducing mycotoxins. |
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Pulsed Light | Red pepper powder | AFB1, Total AF, OTA | The highest fluence applied (9.1 J/cm2, 61 pulses, 20 s) | [ | 16][53] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2.7, 3.1, and 4.1 log CFU/g reduction of yeasts, molds, and total plate counts (TPC), where initial microbial loads were 4.6, 5.5, and 6.5 log CFU/g, respectively |
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[40][81] | Calcium chloride as a cooking ingredient | The least effect on mycotoxin reduction | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The highest fluence applied (9.1 J/cm2, 61 pulses, 20 s) | A maximum reduction of 67.2, 50.9, and 36.9% of (AFB1), (AF), and (OTA) was detected, respectively | Ammoniation | Groundnut press cake | AFs | Ammoniation at (0.5–2.0%) to feed materials/moisture content: 12–16%, at 45–55 psi, and at 80–100 °C for 20–60 min | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pulsed Light | Solid medium | AFB1 and AFB2 | PL at different initial concentrations of AFB | Reductions in the levels of aflatoxin of between 96% and 99% | 1 (229.9, 30.7 and 17.8 μg/kg) and AFBDisadvantages: Insufficient information was available to conclude on the safety and efficacy of the proposed decontamination process; No evidence that the proposed process is sufficient to ensure irreversibility in acid medium (GIT). |
2 (248.2, 32.2 and 19.5 μg/kg) and irradiation intensities (2.86, 1.60 and 0.93 W/cm | [17][54] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2 | ) of PL | The degradation of AFB1 and AFB | 2 | followed the second-order reaction kinetic model well (R2 > 0.97); The degradation rate was proportional to the intensities of PL irradiation and the initial concentrations of aflatoxins | [41][82] | Ammoniation | Wheat kernels | DON | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pulsed Light | Rice | AFB | Treatment with Ammonia vapor at 90 °C for 2 h | 1 and AFB2 | Degradation of DON >75% | PL treatment of 0.52 J/cm2/pulse for 80 s to rough rice | AFB1 reduction rate = 75% AFB2 | Advantages: In silico evaluation estimated a decrease in toxicity and biological effects. |
reduction rate = 39.2% | Advantages:
| [ | [42][83] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PL treatment of 0.52 J/cm2/pulse for 15 s to rice bran | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
AFB | 1 reduction rate = 90.3%AFB2 reduction rate = 86.7% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UV-C Irradiation | Brown, black, and red rice (Moisture content = 13%) | Aflatoxin (B1,B2, G1, and G2), DON, OTA, and ZEN | In black and red rice–the UV-C irradiation treatment (dosage of 2.06 kJ/cm2) for 1 h | Effective in fungal decontamination, photo-degradation of mycotoxins | Advantages: (dosage of 2.06 kJ/cm2) for 1 h:
(dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2) for 3 h:
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[32][73] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In black and red rice—the UV-C irradiation treatment (dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2) for 3 h | Increased the efficiency of fungal decontamination and reduced mycotoxins | Ammoniation | Maize | AFs | The effect of ammonia | More destructive to aflatoxins G1 and G2 compared with aflatoxin B1 and B2 | [ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
20 | ] | In brown rice, the treatment conditions need to be optimized since only the dosage of 6.18 kJ/cm2 | [ | 56 | ] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reduction of fungal contamination | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UV-C Irradiation | Maize and peanut | Highest detoxification rate | AFB1 | Aflatoxins G1 | After ten days of incubation and irradiation treatment delivering a dose of 8370 mJ/cm2 (95%) Aflatoxin G2 (93%) |
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The highest reduction of | A. flavus | count was 4.4 log CFU/g in maize and 3.1 log CFU/g in peanut | Advantages: |
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[43] | Lowest degradation rate | Aflatoxin B1 (85%) Aflatoxin B2 (83%) |
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[ | 84 | ] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Depending on the treatment | AFB1 reduction level:In maize ranged from 17 to 43% In peanut ranged from 14 to 51% | Acid | Selected Nuts | AFs | Moisture Levels: walnut (10 ± 3 and 16 ± 3%); pistachio (10 ± 3%); peanuts (10 ± 3%) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UV-C Irradiation | Peanut | AFB1 | Citric, Lactic and propionic acid at 9% Time: 15 min |
Reduction rate of aflatoxins: citric acid (99%); lactic acid (99.9%); propionic acid (96.07%) | The darkening of the UV indicator (AgCl) | Advantages: | Linearly proportional to the UV dosage from 0 to 120 mJ/cm2 delivered on peanuts | Food-grade organic acids do not affect the nuts’ quality. |
Advantages:
| [21][57] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | 44 | ] | [ | 85 | ] | Citric acid | Considerable reduction of the 4 aflatoxins; No formation of hazardous residues | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Rotation at 11 rpm in the cylindrical chamber | Significant improvement in UV uniformity | Lactic acid | Significant reduction of AFB1 and Total Afs; Increase in AFB2 and AFG2; Lactic acid converts AFB | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1 | UV irradiation: 2.3 mW/cm2 UV-C for 2 h with rotation at 11 rpm into AFB2 (less toxic) | Reduction percentage by 23.4% (from 14.3 ± 3.4% to 17.7 ± 4.5%) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Propionic acid | More efficient to reduce AFB1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UV irradiation: 2.3 mW/cm2 UV-C for 2 h with rotation at 11 rpm | Increased AFB1 degradation rate from 60.8 ± 15.3 pmol g−1h−1 to 75.0 ± 10.9 pmol g−1h−1 | Acid | Feeds/Foods | DON | 5% solutions of lactic acid and citric acid | Reduction of the concentration of common trichothecene mycotoxins, especially DON and its derivate 15Ac-DON | [22][58] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gamma Irradiation | Maize | AF and OTA |
Gamma irradiation dose of 6.0 kGy | Completely inhibited the growth of the two molds | [45][86] | 5% solutions of lactic acid and citric acid | No or only small effects on zearalenone, fumonisins, and culmorin | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gamma irradiation dose of 4.5 kGy | Reduced the production of their mycotoxins | Lactic acid treatment | Decreased concentration of nivalenol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gamma irradiation dose of 20 kGy | Maximum reduction rate is as follows: |
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Acid | - | AFB1 | 1 M citric acid—at Room temperature—Time: 96 h | conversion of AFB1 to AFB2a >97% | Advantages: Organic acids have few detrimental effects; Under these conditions, > 71% of AFB1 was hydrated to AFB2a and did not show any reversion to the parent compound after being transferred to a neutral solution; Conversion of AFB1 to AFB | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gamma Irradiation | Wheat flourgrape juiceandwine | 2a | OTA | in a gastric environment can be enhanced by the addition of citric acid. | In wheat flour, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | Disadvantages: Discoloration of various types of meats including beef, pork, and fish along with minor alterations in odor and taste. |
OTA reduction rate = 24% | Advantages:
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[46][87] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In grape juice, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | OTA reduction rate = 12% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In wine, a radiation dose of 30.5 kGy | OTA reduction rate = 23% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gamma Irradiation | Sorghum | OTA and AFB1 | Gamma irradiation dose of 3 kGy | Sufficient to eliminate 90% of the natural fungal load of sorghum | [47][88] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
At a radiation dose of 10 kGy | The maximum reduction rate of AFB1 = 59% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
At a radiation dose of 10 kGy | The maximum reduction rate of OTA = 32% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Extrusion | Whole grain triticale flour | DON, 3- and 15-AcDON, HT-2, TEN, AME | Optimal parameters of co-rotating twin-screw extruder for lowering the concentration of each investigated mycotoxins in naturally contaminated flour were: SS = 650 rpm, FR = 30 kg/h, MC = 20 g/100 g | Reduction rate of mycotoxins: DON: 9.5%; 3-AcDON: 27.8%; 15-AcDON: 28.4%; HT-2: 60.5%; TEN: 12.3%; AME: 85.7% | [48][89] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Extrusion | Cornmeal | AF: B1, B2, G1, G2 | Extrusion in the absence of high-amylose cornstarch | A reduction in aflatoxins level: (B1: 83.7%, B2: 80.5%, G1: 74.7%, and G2: 87.1%) | Disadvantages:
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[49][90] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Extrusion in the presence of high-amylose cornstarch |
Higher aflatoxins reductions were observed: (B1-89.9%, B2-88.6%, G1-75.0%, and G2-89.9%) |
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Electrolyzed Water | Wheat grains | DON | For AcidEW | Advantages:
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[50][91] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pH 5.5 | Optimal pH for DON elimination | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pH 2.5 | Optimal pH for fungal reduction | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
For AlkEW | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pH 9.5 | Optimal pH for DON elimination | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
pH from 8.5 to 12.5 |
Strong elimination activity on fungi |
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Electron Beam | Red pepper powder | OTA | Treatment at 6 kGy |
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Advantages:
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[51][92] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Treatment at 10 kGy for 23 s |
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Treatment at 30 kGy |
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Milling | Maize | Mycotoxins | Grain cleaning |
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Advantages:
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[52][93]
3. Biological TreatmentsBiocontrol showed high efficiency in the prevention of AFs formation in the pre-harvest stage when non-aflatoxigenic biological control strains are inoculated in the fields and competed with aflatoxinenic strains of Aspergillus for nutrients and place and causing their exclusion [54][55][110,111]. The studies discussed in this section aimed to mitigate the already formed mycotoxins in feeds and foods by biological treatments and not to prevent their formation in crops (Table 3).
Most studies about the mitigation of mycotoxins by biological means focused on the treatment of liquid food or milk [56][57][58][32,33,112], assessing the effect of yeast, bacteria, or their enzymes on the mycotoxins in buffers or solutions [59][60][61][30,113,114]. Biological detoxification could be the result of binding the targets by adsorption mechanisms or by degradation. This detoxification of mycotoxins can be conducted using microorganisms (bacteria, biofilm, or yeast) or their metabolites and enzymes [ |