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HandWiki. The Three Rs (Animals). Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/30699 (accessed on 25 September 2026).
HandWiki. The Three Rs (Animals). Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/30699. Accessed September 25, 2026.
HandWiki. "The Three Rs (Animals)" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/30699 (accessed September 25, 2026).
HandWiki. (2022, October 21). The Three Rs (Animals). In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/30699
HandWiki. "The Three Rs (Animals)." Encyclopedia. Web. 21 October, 2022.
The Three Rs (Animals)
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The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Biology:The_Three_Rs_(animals)

The Three Rs (3Rs) in relation to science are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. They were first described by W. M. S. Russell and R. L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs are:

  1. Replacement: methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in research
  2. Reduction: use of methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.
  3. Refinement: use of methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used.

The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals cannot be avoided. In many countries, these 3Rs are now explicit in legislation governing animal use. It is usual to capitalise the first letter of each of the three 'R' principles (i.e. 'Replacement' rather than 'replacement') to avoid ambiguity and clarify reference to the 3Rs principles.

scientific quality animal welfare guiding principles

References

  1. Continuing Efforts to More Efficiently Use Laboratory Animals. National Academies Press (US). 2004. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK24662/. 
  2. Rowan, A.D., (1991). The alternatives concept. Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter, 2(2): 1-2 [2]
  3. Russell, W.M.S. and Burch, R.L., (1959). The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique, Methuen, London. ISBN:0900767782 [1] A digital version of the Principles may be accessed for free on the website of Johns Hopkins University's Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT). https://caat.jhsph.edu/principles/the-principles-of-humane-experimental-technique
  4. "What are the 3Rs?". National Centre for Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research. http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/page.asp?id=7. 
  5. https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1225&context=animsent
  6. "A brief history of organoids". American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology 319 (1): C151–C165. July 2020. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00120.2020. PMID 32459504.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=7468890
  7. Hogberg, Helena (June 4, 2020). "Mini-brain Organoids". Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University. https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/7th-annual-3rs-symposium-practical-solutions-and-success-stories. 
  8. "Use and application of 3D-organoid technology". Human Molecular Genetics 27 (R2): R99–R107. August 2018. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddy187. PMID 29796608.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fhmg%2Fddy187
  9. "Organoids are promising tools for species-specific in vitro toxicological studies". Journal of Applied Toxicology 39 (12): 1610–1622. December 2019. doi:10.1002/jat.3815. PMID 31168795.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjat.3815
  10. "iPS, organoids and 3D models as advanced tools for in vitro toxicology". Altex 37 (1): 136–140. 2020-01-20. doi:10.14573/altex.1911071. PMID 31960938.  https://dx.doi.org/10.14573%2Faltex.1911071
  11. "Benchmark dose and the three Rs. Part II. Consequences for study design and animal use". Critical Reviews in Toxicology 44 (7): 568–80. August 2014. doi:10.3109/10408444.2014.925424. PMID 25000331.  https://dx.doi.org/10.3109%2F10408444.2014.925424
  12. "Harnessing Preclinical Molecular Imaging to Inform Advances in Personalized Cancer Medicine". Journal of Nuclear Medicine 58 (5): 689–696. May 2017. doi:10.2967/jnumed.116.181693. PMID 28385796.  https://dx.doi.org/10.2967%2Fjnumed.116.181693
  13. "National Centre for the Replacement, Reduction and Refinement of Animals in Research". National Centre for the Replacement, Reduction and Refinement of Animals in Research. http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/page.asp?id=7. 
  14. "Harmonising the definition of Refinement". Animal Welfare. 2005. https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/7436/1/http___www.psychology.stir.ac.pdf. 
  15. "The 3Rs Principle – Mind the Ethical Gap!". ALTEX Proceedings of WC8. 2012. http://www.altex.ch/resources/333336_Olsson2.pdf. Retrieved 14 July 2015. 
  16. "Balancing Reduction and Refinement". PiLAS. http://pilas.org.uk/balancing-reduction-and-refinement/. 
  17. "Trends in animal use at US research facilities". Journal of Medical Ethics 41 (7): 567–9. July 2015. doi:10.1136/medethics-2014-102404. PMID 25717142.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2014-102404
  18. "New techniques for producing transgenic animals - a mixed blessing from both the scientific and animal welfare perspectives". Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 42 (2): 93–4. May 2014. doi:10.1177/026119291404200201. PMID 24901903. http://altweb.jhsph.edu/pubs/journals/atla/42_2/Editorial.pdf. 
  19. "Getting the measure of replacement, reduction and refinement - NC3Rs". https://www.nc3rs.org.uk/news/getting-measure-replacement-reduction-and-refinement. 
  20. "Prolonged pain research in mice: trends in reference to the 3Rs". Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 16 (1): 77–95. 2013. doi:10.1080/10888705.2013.741004. PMID 23282295. http://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=acwp_arte. 
  21. "Survey of the quality of experimental design, statistical analysis and reporting of research using animals". PLOS ONE 4 (11): e7824. November 2009. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007824. PMID 19956596. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.7824K.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2779358
  22. "Improving bioscience research reporting: the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research". PLOS Biology 8 (6): e1000412. June 2010. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412. PMID 20613859.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2893951
  23. "The role of journals in implementing the 3Rs: ARRIVE and beyond - NC3Rs". https://www.nc3rs.org.uk/news/role-journals-implementing-3rs-arrive-and-beyond. 
  24. "Two years later: journals are not yet enforcing the ARRIVE guidelines on reporting standards for pre-clinical animal studies". PLOS Biology 12 (1): e1001756. January 2014. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001756. PMID 24409096.  http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3883646
  25. "Scientists and the 3Rs: attitudes to animal use in biomedical research and the effect of mandatory training in laboratory animal science". Laboratory Animals 48 (1): 50–60. January 2014. doi:10.1177/0023677213498717. PMID 23940123. http://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/78435/1/Scientists%20and%20the%203Rs%20attitudes%20to%20animal%20use%20in%20biomedical%20research%20and%20the%20effect%20of%20mandatory%20training%20in%20laboratory%20animal%20science.pdf. 
  26. "Animal welfare: Inter-departmental group on reduction, refinement and replacement". The National Archives. http://scienceandresearch.homeoffice.gov.uk/animal-research/animal-welfare/inter-department-group/index.html. 
  27. "Directive 2010/63/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes". http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32010L0063&from=EN. 
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