Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Donella Puliti
 -- 1849 2022-10-18 10:12:15 |
2 layout
Camila Xu
 Meta information modification 1849 2022-10-18 10:23:58 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Mascalchi, M.;  Picozzi, G.;  Puliti, D.;  Gorini, G.;  Mantellini, P.;  Sali, L. CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29894 (accessed on 19 May 2024).
Mascalchi M,  Picozzi G,  Puliti D,  Gorini G,  Mantellini P,  Sali L. CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29894. Accessed May 19, 2024.
Mascalchi, Mario, Giulia Picozzi, Donella Puliti, Giuseppe Gorini, Paola Mantellini, Lapo Sali. "CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29894 (accessed May 19, 2024).
Mascalchi, M.,  Picozzi, G.,  Puliti, D.,  Gorini, G.,  Mantellini, P., & Sali, L. (2022, October 18). CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29894
Mascalchi, Mario, et al. "CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening." Encyclopedia. Web. 18 October, 2022.
CT for Double Lung and Colorectal Cancer Screening
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/diagnostics12102326

Annual screening of lung cancer (LC) with chest low-dose computed tomography (CT) and screening of colorectal cancer (CRC) with CT colonography every 5 years are recommended by the United States Prevention Service Task Force. 

chest CT computed tomography CT colonography

1. Introduction

The 2021 statements of the United States Prevention Service Task Force (USPSTF) have recommended both chest low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) for Lung Cancer (LC) screening and CT colonography for colorectal cancer (CRC) screening [1][2]. This justifies consideration of the opportunity for a single-appointment CT for double screening of LC and CRC. However, importantly, while chest LDCT is the only recommended screening tool for LC since 2013, other screening tools besides CT colonography have also been recommended for CRC since the late 1990s [1][2].

2. Epidemiology

LC and CRC are among the most common and lethal neoplasms, accounting for about 2 and 1.8 million cases and 1.7 and 0.8 million deaths per year worldwide, respectively [3]. Accordingly, the overall 5-year survival rate of LC is 20.5% [4], and that of CRC is 73.7% [5]. Together, LC and CRC account for about 1/5 (21.8%) of all cancer cases and 1/4 (27.6%) of all cancer deaths [3].
Since early stage LC has a better prognosis and is more amenable to treatment than more advanced-stage LC [1], and removal of precancerous lesions halts the progression from polyp to CRC [2], screening of LC and CRC can save lives and is fully justified as a health preventive intervention.
LC has sporadic distribution and cigarette smoking, a modifiable behavior, is its main key risk factor, along with age [1]. The proportion of deaths from LC attributable to smoking is 76% among males and 39% among females [6]. Additional risk factors for LC include second-hand smoke, environmental (radon, domestic fuel smoke, outdoor air pollution) and professional (asbestos, ionizing radiations, chromium, arsenic, etc.) exposures, infections and chronic inflammations, including Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and Interstitial Lung Disease (ILD) [1][7][8][9][10]. Worldwide, 15–20% of men and around 50% of women with LC, particularly in Asia, are never smokers, whereas in the US, 9% of men and 19% of women with LC are never smokers [11][12].
Notably, several studies have demonstrated that selection of subjects to be invited to LC screening based on age and pack years only, as indicated by the USPSTF, performs worse in terms of predicting LC risk, and hence are suboptimal for subjects selection compared to personal risk prediction calculation models, which consider additional risk factors such as history of respiratory diseases, previous malignancy, family history of lung cancer (first-degree relative diagnosed at age 60 years or younger), and exposure to asbestos [13][14]. So far, the modified Liverpool Lung Project [LLPv2] and Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial [PLCO] models [15][16] have been those more frequently utilized to select patients for LC screening in a clinical trial.
CRC too has a predominantly sporadic distribution, but familial history of the disease is present in 20–30% of cases, and rare inherited diseases such as Lynch Syndrome and Familial Adenomatous Polyposis and others are observed in 6–10% of cases, [17]. Age, race and history of inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s colitis) are additional non-modifiable risk factors for CRC. However, several modifiable lifestyles and environmental risk factors are now also known for colon polyps and CRC [17], including diet—in particular, high intake of red and processed meat [18]—smoking, alcohol intake, little physical activity and elevated body mass index. Subjects with family history, the above inherited diseases or with inflammatory bowel disease are considered at “high-risk” of CRC and must be distinguished from the remaining subjects who are considered at “average-risk”.
Increased smoking habit is responsible for a growing trend of LC incidence and mortality in women, whereas these are decreasing in men [19]. An unexplained increase worldwide in rates of CRC in individuals under 50 has been recently described [17].

3. Pathology

In general, early stage tumors and precancerous lesions are the target of screening procedures.
In the lung, only Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) shows the relatively low growth compatible with screening, which affords its detection in early stages (I and II) when it can be surgically removed and definitely cured. Unfortunately, this is not the case for the fast-growing Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC), which accounts for 15–20% of primary lung tumors. SCLC escapes screening, and no benefit of its detection in the screening setting was reported in terms of decreased mortality [20]. Among the screen-detected NSCLC, adenocarcinoma and squamous carcinoma are the most frequent [21][22][23][24]. Adenocarcinoma is particularly frequent in women, and its long sojourn time [25] is associated with a more marked decrease in LC mortality following LDCT screening in women than in men [21][23][24][26].
Precancerous lesions in the lung can be distinguished into those related to adenocarcinoma and those related to squamous cell carcinoma. The former typically appear as a peripheral lung nodule, are easily demonstrated by chest LDCT and include (1) atypical adenomatous hyperplasia and (2) several distinct conditions that have replaced the old comprehensive term bronchoalveolar carcinoma (BAC) as adenocarcinoma in situ, minimally invasive adenocarcinoma, lepidic predominant adenocarcinoma and invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma [27]. The CT correlates of these histologic entities vary from lung nodules with pure ground glass (non-solid) density to mixed (part solid) and solid density (see below). Dysplastic lesions of the central airways which are precursors of squamous cell carcinoma are well detected by fluorescence bronchoscopy [28] and can escape chest LDCT.
From a histological point of view, CRC is usually an adenocarcinoma (86% of all colon cancers- others include adenosquamous carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, spindle cell carcinoma, undifferentiated carcinoma and other special histopathological types) and arises from two precancerous lesions, namely adenomatous polyps, underlying 60–70% of CRC, and sessile serrated lesions, accounting for about 15–30% of CRC [17], which can coexist in the same subject, but have a distinct aspect at optical colonoscopy. In fact, at optical colonoscopy, adenomatous polyps appear to be well-demarcated lesions variably elevated on a stalk or pedicle. Sessile serrated lesions are flat with indistinct margins, and may show a “mucus cap” that makes them more likely to be missed on optical colonoscopy compared to adenomatous polyps.

4. Screening Tests for LC and CRC, Their Organization and Adhesion

The National Lung Screening Trial in the US demonstrated that, unlike chest X-rays, screening with chest LDCT reduces mortality from LC by 20% in smokers and former smokers [21]. In a recent metanalysis of nine trials, LDCT screening was associated with a 16% relative reduction in LC mortality when compared against a non-screening LDCT control arm [29].
Accordingly, annual LDCT screening of LC is recommended by USPSTF for subjects aged 50–80 years with a smoking history of at least 20 pack years or who have quit in the last 15 years [1]. Experience with LC screening in never smokers is limited to a single study in Asia [30], but the positive results in terms of early stage cancers detection represent an area of further research and debate [31]. Screening in asbestos-exposed workers is effective in detecting asymptomatic LC [32]. Adoption of a validated risk stratification approach is recommended by the European Union (EU) Position Statement to implement LC screening in Europe [33].
Several screening tools are available for CRC and its precursor that is the advanced adenoma [34][35][36][37][38]. They include stool-based methods (high-sensitivity guaiac fecal occult blood testing (HSgFOBT) annually, fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) annually and multi-target stool DNA every 1 to 3 years), CT colonography, flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS) and optical colonoscopy (OC), but also barium enema, blood-based tests and colon capsule endoscopy [17]. However, only stool-based methods, CT colonography, flexible sigmoidoscopy and optical colonoscopy have been recommended as screening tools [2][39][40].
So far, the effect of screening in decreasing the CRC incidence and mortality has been demonstrated for stool-based methods [17][41] and for FS [42][43], whereas it is lacking for CT colonography and OC.
According to modeling studies, implementation of screening would yield about a 50% decline in CRC incidence and mortality [44][45].
As a matter of fact, the USPSTF recommends screening without identifying a preferred option [2]. In average-risk individuals, recommended screening intervals for CRC depend upon the screening tool and range from one year for stool-based methods to 5 years for CT colonography and FS, to 10 years for OC [2]. In average-risk individuals, the USPSTF recommends CRC screening from 45 to 75 years of age, whereas it can selectively be requested by physicians in subjects aged 76–85 years who had never experienced screening or whose life expectancy is 10 years or more [2]. Advocates of CT colonography [46][47] purport that it is an efficient, underused screening tool for CRC that is intermediate for invasiveness between stool-based methods and OC, while it exhibits a detection rate for advanced adenoma that is higher than stool-based methods and similar to FS or OC. In fact, randomized screening trials showed that CT colonography has higher detection rate for advanced neoplasia (5.2%) than one FIT round (1.7%) [35], and a similar detection rate of flexible sigmoidoscopy [5.1% for CT colonography vs. 4.8% for flexible sigmoidoscopy] [36].
In individuals at high risk of CRC development, it is recommended that screening begins earlier, at age 40 or 10 years before the youngest age of CRC diagnosis in the family [48], and no indication is established concerning the screening tool and interval. However, since OC affords both detection and removal of polyps and adenomas in a single examination, CRC screening in people at high risk must be performed with OC [17][49][50][51] and should be performed every two years or annually [52][53].
Screening can follow two basic modalities: opportunistic or organized-population based. Opportunistic screening usually is based on the individual desire to perform search of pre- or early cancer conditions and on an ad hoc or fee-based service, while population-based organized screening is generally supported by the public health service and entails invitation of a target population and measurement and reporting of screening quality [17].
LC screening has been recommended by the USPSTF since 2013 [54], while its implementation as a population-based screening is currently investigated in many European countries. CRC screening using stool-based methods started in around 1996 [55][56] and using OC in 1997 [17], and is predominantly opportunistic in the US, whereas many European countries have implemented population-based CRC screening.
A general problem of screening initiatives is low adherence, which can jeopardize their efficacy. Adhesion to LC screening is variable and, despite the USPSTF recommendations for annual LDCT screening since 2013, it involved only 17% of the target population in a recent survey in the US, with a non-significant lower participation of non-Hispanic Black individuals [57]. In case of CRC screening, the adherence of average-risk people varies with the screening tool and is higher (55–68%) for FIT and other stool-based modalities [35][37][38], and lower for FS (27–52%) [36][37], CT colonography (25–34%) [34][35][36] and OC (22–35%) [34][38]. Independently from the screening tool, overall adherence to CRC screening in the US is still below 70% in most geographical regions (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. United States cancer statistics colorectal cancer stat bite. 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/uscs/about/stat-bites/index.htm, accessed on 30 June 2022). The following interventions to increase the suboptimal CRC screening uptake have been identified: outreach, navigation, education of patients or providers, reminders and financial incentives [17]. It is also conceivable that the opportunity to perform double screening in a single session CT might exert a drag effect on CT colonography in smokers and former smokers undergoing chest LDCT for LC screening, at least in an opportunistic framework.
For both LC and CRC screening, adhesions were reduced for a variety of reasons during the COVID-19 pandemic [58]. In Italy, participation rate in the population-FIT-based CRC screening was 42% in 2019 and 34% in 2020, with a 2019–2020 gap of 1.1 million tests due to the COVID-19 pandemic [59].

References

  1. US Preventive Services Task Force; Krist, A.H.; Davidson, K.W.; Mangione, M.; Barry, M.J.; Cabana, M.; Caughey, A.B.; Davis, E.M.; Donahue, K.E.; Doubeni, C.A.; et al. Screening for Lung Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA 2021, 325, 962–970.
  2. US Preventive Services Task Force; Davidson, K.W.; Barry, M.J.; Mangione, C.M.; Cabana, M.; Caughey, A.B.; Davis, E.M.; Donahue, K.E.; Doubeni, C.A.; Krist, A.H.; et al. Screening for Colorectal Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA 2021, 325, 1965–1977, Erratum in: JAMA 2021, 326, 773.
  3. Bray, F.; Ferlay, J.; Soerjomataram, I.; Siegel, R.L.; Torre, L.A.; Jemal, A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2018, 68, 394–424.
  4. National Cancer Institute. Cancer Stat Facts: Lung and Bronchus Cancer. 2021. Available online: https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/lungb.html (accessed on 30 June 2022).
  5. Snyder, R.A.; Hu, C.Y.; Cuddy, A.; Francescatti, A.B.; Schumacher, J.R.; Van Loon, K.; You, Y.N.; Kozower, B.D.; Greenberg, C.C.; Schrag, D.; et al. Association Between Intensity of Posttreatment Surveillance Testing and Detection of Recurrence in Patients With Colorectal Cancer. JAMA 2018, 319, 2104–2115.
  6. GBD 2019 Respiratory Tract Cancers Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of respiratory tract cancers and associated risk factors from 1990 to 2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Respir. Med. 2021, 9, 1030–1049.
  7. Su, S.Y.; Liaw, Y.P.; Jhuang, J.R.; Hsu, S.Y.; Chiang, C.J.; Yang, Y.W.; Lee, W.C. Associations between ambient air pollution and cancer incidence in Taiwan: An ecological study of geographical variations. BMC Public Health 2019, 19, 1496.
  8. Lipfert, F.W.; Wyzga, R.E. Longitudinal relationships between lung cancer mortality rates, smoking, and ambient air quality: A comprehensive review and analysis. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2019, 49, 790–818.
  9. Corrales, L.; Rosell, R.; Cardona, A.F.; Martín, C.; Zatarain-Barrón, Z.L.; Arrieta, O. Lung cancer in never smokers: The role of different risk factors other than tobacco smoking. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 2020, 148, 102895.
  10. Myers, R.; Brauer, M.; Dummer, T.; Atkar-Khattra, S.; Yee, J.; Melosky, B.; Ho, C.; McGuire, A.L.; Sun, S.; Grant, K.; et al. High-Ambient Air Pollution Exposure Among Never Smokers Versus Ever Smokers With Lung Cancer. J. Thorac. Oncol. 2021, 16, 1850–1858.
  11. Dubin, S.; Griffin, D. Lung Cancer in Non-Smokers. Mo Med. 2020, 117, 375–379.
  12. Carreras, G.; Lugo, A.; Gallus, S.; Cortini, B.; Fernández, E.; López, M.J.; Soriano, J.B.; Nicolás, Á.L.; Semple, S.; Gorini, G.; et al. Burden of disease attributable to second-hand smoke exposure: A systematic review. Prev. Med. 2019, 129, 105833.
  13. Li, K.; Hüsing, A.; Sookthai, D.; Bergmann, M.; Boeing, H.; Becker, N.; Kaaks, R. Selecting High-Risk Individuals for Lung Cancer Screening: A Prospective Evaluation of Existing Risk Models and Eligibility Criteria in the German EPIC Cohort. Cancer Prev. Res. 2015, 8, 777–785.
  14. Tammemägi, M.C.; Ruparel, M.; Tremblay, A.; Myers, R.; Mayo, J.; Yee, J.; Atkar-Khattra, S.; Yuan, R.; Cressman, S.; English, J.; et al. USPSTF2013 versus PLCOm2012 lung cancer screening eligibility criteria (International Lung Screening Trial): Interim analysis of a prospective cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2022, 23, 138–148.
  15. Cassidy, A.; Myles, J.P.; van Tongeren, M.; Page, R.D.; Liloglou, T.; Duffy, S.W.; Field, J.K. The LLP risk model: An individual risk prediction model for lung cancer. Br. J. Cancer 2008, 98, 270–276.
  16. Bach, P.B.; Kattan, M.W.; Thornquist, M.D.; Kris, M.G.; Tate, R.C.; Barnett, M.J.; Hsieh, L.J.; Begg, C.B. Variations in lung cancer risk among smokers. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2003, 95, 470–478.
  17. Kanth, P.; Inadomi, J.M. Screening and prevention of colorectal cancer. BMJ 2021, 374, n1855.
  18. Bouvard, V.; Loomis, D.; Guyton, K.Z.; Grosse, Y.; Ghissassi, F.E.; Benbrahim-Tallaa, L.; Guha, N.; Mattock, H.; Straif, K.; International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. Lancet Oncol. 2015, 16, 1599–1600.
  19. Peto, R.; Lopez, A.D.; Boreham, J.; Thun, M. Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries, 1950–2000, 2nd ed.; 2006; Available online: www.deathsfromsmoking.net (accessed on 30 June 2022).
  20. Silva, M.; Galeone, C.; Sverzellati, N.; Marchianò, A.; Calareso, G.; Sestini, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Sozzi, G.; Pelosi, G.; Pastorino, U. Screening with Low-Dose Computed Tomography Does Not Improve Survival of Small Cell Lung Cancer. J. Thorac. Oncol. 2016, 11, 187–193.
  21. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team; Aberle, D.R.; Adams, A.M.; Berg, C.D.; Black, W.C.; Clapp, J.D.; Fagerstrom, R.M.; Gareen, I.F.; Gatsonis, C.; Marcus, P.M.; et al. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365, 395–409.
  22. Paci, E.; Puliti, D.; Lopes Pegna, A.; Carrozzi, L.; Picozzi, G.; Falaschi, F.; Pistelli, F.; Aquilini, F.; Ocello, C.; Zappa, M.; et al. Mortality, survival and incidence rates in the ITALUNG randomised lung cancer screening trial. Thorax 2017, 72, 825–831.
  23. de Koning, H.J.; van der Aalst, C.M.; de Jong, P.A.; Scholten, E.T.; Nackaerts, K.; Heuvelmans, M.A.; Lammers, J.J.; Weenink, C.; Yousaf-Khan, U.; Horeweg, N.; et al. Reduced Lung-Cancer Mortality with Volume CT Screening in a Randomized Trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 503–513.
  24. Becker, N.; Motsch, E.; Trotter, A.; Heussel, C.P.; Dienemann, H.; Schnabel, P.A.; Kauczor, H.U.; Maldonado, S.G.; Miller, A.B.; Kaaks, R.; et al. Lung cancer mortality reduction by LDCT screening—Results from the randomized German LUSI trial. Int. J. Cancer 2020, 146, 1503–1513.
  25. Ten Haaf, K.; van Rosmalen, J.; de Koning, H.J. Lung cancer detectability by test, histology, stage, and gender: Estimates from the NLST and the PLCO trials. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2015, 24, 154–161.
  26. Puliti, D.; Picozzi, G.; Gorini, G.; Carrozzi, L.; Mascalchi, M. Gender effect in the ITALUNG screening trial. A comparison with UKLS and other trials. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022, 13, 100300.
  27. Lambe, G.; Durand, M.; Buckley, A.; Nicholson, S.; McDermott, R. Adenocarcinoma of the lung: From BAC to the future. Insights Imaging 2020, 11, 69.
  28. Thakrar, R.M.; Pennycuick, A.; Borg, E.; Janes, S.M. Preinvasive disease of the airway. Cancer Treat. Rev. 2017, 58, 77–90.
  29. Field, J.K.; Vulkan, D.; Davies, M.P.A.; Baldwin, D.R.; Brain, K.E.; Devaraj, A.; Eisen, T.; Gosney, J.; Green, B.A.; Holemans, J.A.; et al. Lung cancer mortality reduction by LDCT screening: UKLS randomised trial results and international meta-analysis. Lancet Reg. Health Eur. 2021, 10, 100179.
  30. Kang, H.R.; Cho, J.Y.; Lee, S.H.; Lee, Y.J.; Park, J.S.; Cho, Y.J.; Yoon, H.I.; Lee, K.W.; Lee, J.H.; Lee, C.T. Role of Low-Dose Computerized Tomography in Lung Cancer Screening among Never-Smokers. J. Thorac. Oncol. 2019, 14, 436–444.
  31. Kerpel-Fronius, A.; Tammemägi, M.; Cavic, M.; Henschke, C.; Jiang, L.; Kazerooni, E.; Lee, C.T.; Ventura, L.; Yang, D.; Lam, S.; et al. Screening for Lung Cancer in Individuals Who Never Smoked: An International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer Early Detection and Screening Committee Report. J. Thorac. Oncol. 2022, 17, 56–66.
  32. Ollier, M.; Chamoux, A.; Naughton, G.; Pereira, B.; Dutheil, F. Chest CT scan screening for lung cancer in asbestos occupational exposure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest 2014, 145, 1339–1346.
  33. Oudkerk, M.; Devaraj, A.; Vliegenthart, R.; Henzler, T.; Prosch, H.; Heussel, C.P.; Bastarrika, G.; Sverzellati, N.; Mascalchi, M.; Delorme, S.; et al. European position statement on lung cancer screening. Lancet Oncol. 2017, 18, e754–e766.
  34. Stoop, E.M.; de Haan, M.C.; de Wijkerslooth, T.R.; Bossuyt, P.M.; van Ballegooijen, M.; Nio, C.Y.; van de Vijver, M.J.; Biermann, K.; Thomeer, M.; van Leerdam, M.E.; et al. Participation and yield of colonoscopy versus non-cathartic CT colonography in population-based screening for colorectal cancer: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012, 13, 55–64.
  35. Sali, L.; Mascalchi, M.; Falchini, M.; Ventura, L.; Carozzi, F.; Castiglione, G.; Delsanto, S.; Mallardi, B.; Mantellini, P.; Milani, S.; et al. Reduced and Full-Preparation CT Colonography, Fecal Immunochemical Test, and Colonoscopy for Population Screening of Colorectal Cancer: A Randomized Trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2015, 108, djv319.
  36. Regge, D.; Iussich, G.; Segnan, N.; Correale, L.; Hassan, C.; Arrigoni, A.; Asnaghi, R.; Bestagini, P.; Bulighin, G.; Cassinis, M.C.; et al. Comparing CT colonography and flexible sigmoidoscopy: A randomised trial within a population-based screening programme. Gut 2017, 66, 1434–1440.
  37. Randel, K.R.; Schult, A.L.; Botteri, E.; Hoff, G.; Bretthauer, M.; Ursin, G.; Natvig, E.; Berstad, P.; Jørgensen, A.; Sandvei, P.K.; et al. Colorectal Cancer Screening With Repeated Faecal Immunochemical Test Versus Sigmoidoscopy: Baseline Results From a Randomized Trial. Gastroenterology 2021, 160, 1085–1096.e5.
  38. Forsberg, A.; Westerberg, M.; Metcalfe, C.; Steele, R.; Blom, J.; Engstrand, L.; Fritzell, K.; Hellström, M.; Levin, L.Å.; Löwbeer, C.; et al. Once-only colonoscopy or two rounds of faecal immunochemical testing 2 years apart for colorectal cancer screening (SCREESCO): Preliminary report of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2022, 7, 513–521.
  39. European Union. Council Recommendation of 2 December 2003 on Cancer Screening. 2003. Available online: https://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:327:0034:0038:EN:PDF (accessed on 7 September 2022).
  40. Wolf, A.M.D.; Fontham, E.T.H.; Church, T.R.; Flowers, C.R.; Guerra, C.E.; LaMonte, S.J.; Etzioni, R.; McKenna, M.T.; Oeffinger, K.C.; Shih, Y.T.; et al. Colorectal cancer screening for average-risk adults: 2018 guideline update from the American Cancer Society. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2018, 68, 250–281.
  41. Ventura, L.; Mantellini, P.; Grazzini, G.; Castiglione, G.; Buzzoni, C.; Rubeca, T.; Sacchettini, C.; Paci, E.; Zappa, M. The impact of immunochemical faecal occult blood testing on colorectal cancer incidence. Dig. Liver Dis. 2014, 46, 82–86.
  42. Elmunzer, B.J.; Hayward, R.A.; Schoenfeld, P.S.; Saini, S.D.; Deshpande, A.; Waljee, A.K. Effect of flexible sigmoidoscopy-based screening on incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med. 2012, 9, e1001352.
  43. Atkin, W.; Edwards, R.; Kralj-Hans, I.; Wooldrage, K.; Hart, A.R.; Northover, J.M.; Parkin, D.M.; Wardle, J.; Duffy, S.W.; Cuzick, J.; et al. Once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening in prevention of colorectal cancer: A multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010, 375, 1624–1633.
  44. Meester, R.G.; Doubeni, C.A.; Lansdorp-Vogelaar, I.; Goede, S.L.; Levin, T.R.; Quinn, V.P.; Ballegooijen, M.V.; Corley, D.A.; Zauber, A.G. Colorectal cancer deaths attributable to nonuse of screening in the United States. Ann. Epidemiol. 2015, 25, 208–213.e1.
  45. Zauber, A.G. The impact of screening on colorectal cancer mortality and incidence: Has it really made a difference? Dig. Dis. Sci. 2015, 60, 681–691.
  46. Pickhardt, P.J. CT Colonography: The Role of Radiologist Training. Radiology 2022, 303, 371–372.
  47. Sali, L.; Ventura, L.; Mascalchi, M.; Falchini, M.; Mallardi, B.; Milani, M.; Grazzini, G.; Zappa, M.; Mantellini, P. Single CT colonography versus three rounds of faecal immunochemical test for population-based screening of colorectal cancer: The SAVE randomised clinical trial. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2022; Online ahead of print.
  48. Rex, D.K.; Boland, C.R.; Dominitz, J.A.; Giardiello, F.M.; Johnson, D.A.; Kaltenbach, T.; Levin, T.R.; Lieberman, D.; Robertson, D.J. Colorectal Cancer Screening: Recommendations for Physicians and Patients from the U.S. Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2017, 112, 1016–1030.
  49. Winawer, S.J.; Fletcher, R.H.; Miller, L.; Godlee, F.; Stolar, M.H.; Mulrow, C.D.; Woolf, S.H.; Glick, S.N.; Ganiats, T.G.; Bond, J.H.; et al. Colorectal cancer screening: Clinical guidelines and rationale. Gastroenterology 1997, 112, 594–642, Erratum in: Gastroenterology 1997, 112, 1060. Erratum in: Gastroenterology 1998, 114, 625.
  50. Ladabaum, U.; Ferrandez, A.; Lanas, A. Cost-effectiveness of colorectal cancer screening in high-risk Spanish patients: Use of a validated model to inform public policy. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2010, 19, 2765–2776.
  51. Ait Ouakrim, D.; Boussioutas, A.; Lockett, T.; Winship, I.; Giles, G.G.; Flander, L.B.; Keogh, L.; Hopper, J.L.; Jenkins, M.A. Screening practices of unaffected people at familial risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Prev. Res. 2012, 5, 240–247.
  52. Wilkins, T.; McMechan, D.; Talukder, A.; Herline, A. Colorectal Cancer Screening and Surveillance in Individuals at Increased Risk. Am. Fam. Physician 2018, 97, 111–116.
  53. Paszat, L.; Sutradhar, R.; Luo, J.; Tinmouth, J.; Rabeneck, L.; Baxter, N.N. Uptake and Short-term Outcomes of High-risk Screening Colonoscopy Billing Codes: A Population-based Study Among Young Adults. J. Can. Assoc. Gastroenterol. 2021, 5, 86–95.
  54. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Lung Cancer: Screening. Recommendation Summary. Available online: www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org (accessed on 9 July 2018).
  55. Allison, J.E.; Tekawa, I.S.; Ransom, L.J.; Adrain, A.L. A comparison of fecal occult-blood tests for colorectal-cancer screening. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996, 334, 155–159.
  56. Castiglione, G.; Zappa, M.; Grazzini, G.; Mazzotta, A.; Biagini, M.; Salvadori, P.; Ciatto, S. Immunochemical vs guaiac faecal occult blood tests in a population-based screening programme for colorectal cancer. Br. J. Cancer 1996, 74, 141–144.
  57. Rustagi, A.S.; Byers, A.L.; Keyhani, S. Likelihood of Lung Cancer Screening by Poor Health Status and Race and Ethnicity in US Adults, 2017 to 2020. JAMA Netw. Open 2022, 5, e225318.
  58. Barsouk, A.; Saginala, K.; Aluru, J.S.; Rawla, P.; Barsouk, A. US Cancer Screening Recommendations: Developments and the Impact of COVID-19. Med. Sci. 2022, 10, 16.
  59. Battisti, F.; Falini, P.; Gorini, G.; Sassoli de Bianchi, P.; Armaroli, P.; Giubilato, P.; Giorgi Rossi, P.; Zorzi, M.; Battagello, J.; Senore, C.; et al. Cancer screening programmes in Italy during the COVID-19 pandemic: An update of a nationwide survey on activity volumes and delayed diagnoses. Ann. Ist. Super. Sanità 2022, 58, 16–24.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Statistics & Probability
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Mario Mascalchi
,
Giulia Picozzi
,
Donella Puliti
,
Giuseppe Gorini
,
Paola Mantellini
,
Lapo Sali
View Times: 193
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 20 Oct 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Feedback