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Luminiferous Aether
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Luminiferous aether or ether ("luminiferous", meaning "light-bearing") was the postulated medium for the propagation of light. It was invoked to explain the ability of the apparently wave-based light to propagate through empty space, something that waves should not be able to do. The assumption of a spatial plenum of luminiferous aether, rather than a spatial vacuum, provided the theoretical medium that was required by wave theories of light. The aether hypothesis was the topic of considerable debate throughout its history, as it required the existence of an invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects. As the nature of light was explored, especially in the 19th century, the physical qualities required of an aether became increasingly contradictory. By the late 1800s, the existence of the aether was being questioned, although there was no physical theory to replace it. The negative outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) suggested that the aether did not exist, a finding that was confirmed in subsequent experiments through the 1920s. This led to considerable theoretical work to explain the propagation of light without an aether. A major breakthrough was the theory of relativity, which could explain why the experiment failed to see aether, but was more broadly interpreted to suggest that it was not needed. The Michelson-Morley experiment, along with the blackbody radiator and photoelectric effect, was a key experiment in the development of modern physics, which includes both relativity and quantum theory, the latter of which explains the particle-like nature of light.

physical theory physical qualities photoelectric

References

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  2. Newton, Isaac: Opticks (1704). Fourth edition of 1730. (Republished 1952 (Dover: New York), with commentary by Bernard Cohen, Albert Einstein, and Edmund Whittaker). https://archive.org/details/opticksoratreat01newtgoog
  3. Young ascribed aether to caloric theory, pairing light and heat, and cited passages from Newton such as: "A luminiferous ether pervades the Universe, rare and elastic in a high degree," and:Is not the heat conveyed through the vacuum by the vibration of a much subtiler medium than air? And is not this medium the same with that medium by which light is refracted and reflected, and by whose vibration light communicates heat to bodies, and is put into fits of easy reflection, and easy transmission?[4]
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  16. Wien, Wilhelm (1898). "Über die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen (Referat für die 70. Versammlung deutsche Naturforscher und Aerzte in Düsseldorf, 1898)". Annalen der Physik 301 (3): I–XVIII. .
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  18. Arago, A. (1810–1853). "Mémoire sur la vitesse de la lumière, lu à la prémière classe de l'Institut, le 10 décembre 1810". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 36: 38–49. 
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  23. Strasser, B. (1907). "Der Fizeausche Versuch über die Änderung des Polarisationsazimuts eines gebrochenen Strahles durch die Bewegung der Erde". Annalen der Physik 329 (11): 137–144. doi:10.1002/andp.19073291109. Bibcode: 1907AnP...329..137S. Archived from the original on 2012-05-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20120515083054/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15331g/f143. 
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  33. Königsberger, J. (1905). "Induktionswirkung im Dielektrikum und Bewegung des Aethers". Berichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg I. Br. 13: 95–100. https://archive.org/details/berichtedernatur131903natu. 
  34. Trouton, F.T. (1902). "The results of an electrical experiment, involving the relative motion of the Earth and the Ether, Suggested by the Late Professor FitzGerald". Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society 7: 379–384. https://archive.org/details/scientifictransa27roya. 
  35. Michelson, Albert Abraham (1881), "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether", American Journal of Science 22 (128): 120–129, doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120, Bibcode: 1881AmJS...22..120M  https://dx.doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-22.128.120
  36. Michelson, Albert Abraham & Morley, Edward Williams (1887), "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether", American Journal of Science 34 (203): 333–345, doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333, Bibcode: 1887AmJS...34..333M  https://dx.doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333
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  39. Lord Rayleigh (1902). "Does Motion through the Aether cause Double Refraction?". Philosophical Magazine 4 (24): 678–683. doi:10.1080/14786440209462891.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440209462891
  40. Brace, DeWitt Bristol (1904). "On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether". Philosophical Magazine 7 (40): 317–329. doi:10.1080/14786440409463122.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440409463122
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  46. They commented in a footnote: "From [the Michelson–Morley] experiment it is not inferred that the velocity of the earth is but a few kilometers per second, but rather that the dimensions of the apparatus vary very nearly as required by relativity. From the present experiment we similarly infer that the frequency of light varies conformably to the theory."
  47. Sagnac, Georges (1913), "L'éther lumineux démontré par l'effet du vent relatif d'éther dans un interféromètre en rotation uniforme", Comptes Rendus 157: 708–710 
  48. Sagnac, Georges (1913), "Sur la preuve de la réalité de l'éther lumineux par l'expérience de l'interférographe tournant", Comptes Rendus 157: 1410–1413 
  49. The confusion over this point can be seen in Sagnac's conclusion that "in the ambient space, light is propagated with a velocity V0, independent of the movement as a whole of the luminous source O and the optical system. That is a property of space which experimentally characterizes the luminiferous aether." The invariance of light speed, independent of the movement of the source, is also one of the two fundamental principles of special relativity.
  50. Roberts, Schleif (2006); Physics FAQ: Experiments that Apparently are NOT Consistent with SR/GR http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html#Experiments_not_consistent_with_SS
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  53. Larmor, Joseph (1900), Aether and Matter, Cambridge University Press 
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  55. Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 6: 809–831 
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  68. Lorentz wrote: "One cannot deny to the bearer of these properties a certain substantiality, and if so, then one may, in all modesty, call true time the time measured by clocks which are fixed in this medium, and consider simultaneity as a primary concept." However, he went on to say that this was based on his conception of "infinite velocity", which according to his own theory is not physically realizable. Lorentz also admitted that the postulate of an absolute but undetectable rest frame was purely metaphysical, and had no empirical consequences.
  69. Dirac wrote about his theory: "We have now the velocity at all points of space-time, playing a fundamental part in electrodynamics. It is natural to regard it as the velocity of some real physical thing. Thus with the new theory of electrodynamics we are rather forced to have an aether."
  70. Dirac, P. M. (1951). "Is there an Aether?". Nature 168 (4282): 906. doi:10.1038/168906a0. Bibcode: 1951Natur.168..906D. http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/Dirac/Dirac1951b.pdf. Retrieved 23 February 2017. 
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  77. Kostro, L. (1992), "An outline of the history of Einstein's relativistic ether concept", in Jean Eisenstaedt; Anne J. Kox, Studies in the history of general relativity, 3, Boston-Basel-Berlin: Birkhäuser, pp. 260–280, ISBN 978-0-8176-3479-7 
  78. Stachel, J. (2001), "Why Einstein reinvented the ether", Physics World 14 (6): 55–56, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/14/6/33.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1088%2F2058-7058%2F14%2F6%2F33
  79. Kostro, L. (2001), "Albert Einstein's New Ether and his General Relativity", Proceedings of the Conference of Applied Differential Geometry: 78–86, archived from the original on 2018-04-11, https://web.archive.org/web/20180411052528/http://www.mathem.pub.ro/proc/bsgp-10/K10-KOSTRO.PDF. 
  80. Einstein 1920: We may say that according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an aether. According to the general theory of relativity space without aether is unthinkable; for in such space there not only would be no propagation of light, but also no possibility of existence for standards of space and time (measuring-rods and clocks), nor therefore any space-time intervals in the physical sense. But this aether may not be thought of as endowed with the quality characteristic of ponderable media, as consisting of parts which may be tracked through time. The idea of motion may not be applied to it.
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