Your browser does not fully support modern features. Please upgrade for a smoother experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 handwiki Sirius Huang -- 9154 2022-10-14 01:37:31

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
HandWiki. Proportional Representation. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29291 (accessed on 26 September 2026).
HandWiki. Proportional Representation. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29291. Accessed September 26, 2026.
HandWiki. "Proportional Representation" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29291 (accessed September 26, 2026).
HandWiki. (2022, October 14). Proportional Representation. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29291
HandWiki. "Proportional Representation." Encyclopedia. Web. 14 October, 2022.
Proportional Representation
Edit
The content is sourced from: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Social:Proportional_representation

Proportional representation (PR) characterizes electoral systems in which divisions in an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. The concept applies mainly to geographical and political divisions of the electorate. The essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result—not just a plurality, or a bare majority. The most prevalent forms of proportional representation all require the use of multiple-member voting districts (also called super-districts), as it is not possible to fill a single seat in a proportional manner. In fact, PR systems that achieve the highest levels of proportionality tend to include districts with large numbers of seats, as large as a province or an entire nation. The most widely used families of PR electoral systems are party-list PR, single transferable vote (STV), and mixed-member PR (MMP). In the European Parliament for instance, each member state has a number of seats that is (roughly) proportional to its population, enabling geographical proportional representation. Almost all European countries also have political proportional representation (ideological proportional representation to the degree that parties honestly describe their goals): When n% of the electorate support a particular political party or set of candidates as their favorite, then roughly n% of seats are allotted to that party or those candidates. According to the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network, some form of proportional representation is used for national lower house elections in 94 countries. Party list PR, being used in 85 countries, is the most widely used. MMP is used in seven lower houses. STV is used in only two: Ireland, since independence in 1922, and Malta, since 1921. STV is also used in the Australian Senate, and can be used for nonpartisan elections such as the city council of Cambridge MA. Due to factors such as electoral thresholds and the use of small constituencies, as well as manipulation tactics such as party splitting and gerrymandering, perfect proportionality is rarely achieved under these systems. Nonetheless, they approximate proportionality much better than other systems. Some jurisdictions use leveling seats to compensate for such factors.

political party multiple-member proportionality

References

  1. Mill, John Stuart (1861). "Chapter VII, Of True and False Democracy; Representation of All, and Representation of the Majority only". Considerations on Representative Government. London: Parker, Son, & Bourn. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/5669/5669-h/5669-h.htm#link2HCH0007. 
  2. Forder, James (2011). The case against voting reform. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-825-8. 
  3. Abbott, Lewis F. British Democracy: Its Restoration and Extension. ISR/Kindle Books, 2019. ISBN:9780906321522. Chapter 7, "Electoral System Reform: Increasing Competition and Voter Choice and Influence".
  4. Koriyama, Y.; Macé, A.; Laslier, J.-F.; Treibich, R. (2013). "Optimal apportionment". Journal of Political Economy 121 (3): 584–608. doi:10.1086/670380.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F670380
  5. Amy, Douglas. "Proportional Representation Voting Systems". Takoma Park. http://www.fairvote.org/proportional_representation_voting_systems. 
  6. Norris, Pippa (1997). "Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed Systems". Harvard University. http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/pnorris/Acrobat/Choosing%20Electoral%20Systems.pdf. 
  7. "The 2005 general election: analysis of the results". London: Electoral Commission. http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/167891/UK-Parliament-elections-2005-Electoral-data-Report.pdf. 
  8. Commission On Electoral Reform, Hansard Society for Parliamentary Government (1976). "Report of the Hansard Society Commission on Electoral Reform". London. https://books.google.com/books?id=ma0nvgAACAAJ. 
  9. "Electoral System Design: the New International IDEA Handbook". International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. 2005. https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/electoral-system-design-new-international-idea-handbook. 
  10. "1993 Canadian Federal Election Results". University of British Columbia. http://esm.ubc.ca/CA93/results.html. 
  11. "Election 2015 - BBC News". https://www.bbc.com/news/election/2015/results. 
  12. Ana Nicolaci da Costa; Charlotte Greenfield (September 23, 2017). "New Zealand's ruling party ahead after poll but kingmaker in no rush to decide". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-newzealand-election-tally/new-zealands-ruling-party-ahead-after-poll-but-kingmaker-in-no-rush-to-decide-idUSKCN1BY0LZ. 
  13. Roberts, Iain (29 June 2010). "People in broad church parties should think twice before attacking coalitions". Liberal Democrat Voice. http://www.libdemvoice.org/people-in-broad-church-parties-should-think-twice-before-attacking-coalitions-20101.html. 
  14. "A look at the evidence". Fair Vote Canada. https://www.fairvote.ca/a-look-at-the-evidence/. 
  15. Amy, Douglas J. "Single Transferable Vote Or Choice Voting". FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/proportional_representation_voting_systems. 
  16. "Electoral Reform Society's evidence to the Joint Committee on the Draft Bill for House of Lords Reform". Electoral Reform Society. 21 October 2011. http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/reforming-the-house-of-lords. 
  17. Harris, Paul (20 November 2011). "'America is better than this': paralysis at the top leaves voters desperate for change". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/20/paralysis-in-us-politics-extremism. 
  18. Krugman, Paul (19 May 2012). "Going To Extreme". The New York Times Co.. https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/19/going-to-extreme/. 
  19. Mollison, Denis. "Fair votes in practice STV for Westminster". Heriot Watt University. http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~denis/signif.pdf. 
  20. "Democrats' Edge in House Popular Vote Would Have Increased if All Seats Had Been Contested". FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/research-and-analysis/blog/democrats-edge-in-house-popular-vote-would-have-increased-if-all-seats-had-been-contested/. 
  21. Cox, Gary W.; Fiva, Jon H.; Smith, Daniel M. (2016). "The Contraction Effect: How Proportional Representation Affects Mobilization and Turnout". The Journal of Politics 78 (4): 1249–1263. doi:10.1086/686804. http://www.jon.fiva.no/docs/Cox-Fiva-Smith-JoP-Final_Main.pdf. 
  22. Amy, Douglas J (2002). Real Choices / New Voices, How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231125499. 
  23. Mollison, Denis (2010). "Fair votes in practice: STV for Westminster". Heriot-Watt University. http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~denis/stv4uk/. 
  24. Scheppele, Kim Lane (April 13, 2014). "Legal But Not Fair (Hungary)". The New York Times Co.. https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/13/legal-but-not-fair-hungary/. 
  25. "Hungary, Parliamentary Elections, 6 April 2014: Final Report". 11 July 2014. http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/hungary/121098. 
  26. "Voting Counts: Electoral Reform for Canada". Law Commission of Canada. 2004. p. 22. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/J31-61-2004E.pdf. 
  27. "Single Transferable Vote". London: Electoral Reform Society. https://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/voting-systems/types-of-voting-system/single-transferable-vote/. 
  28. Humphreys, John H (1911). Proportional Representation, A Study in Methods of Election. London: Methuen & Co.Ltd. https://archive.org/details/proportionalrepr00humpuoft. 
  29. (Dutch) "Evenredige vertegenwoordiging" (in nl). https://www.parlement.com/id/vh8lnhrp1x0a/evenredige_vertegenwoordiging (Dutch). 
  30. Carey, John M.; Hix, Simon (2011). "The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Proportional Electoral Systems". American Journal of Political Science 55 (2): 383–397. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00495.x. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/25125/1/PSPE_WP1_09_%28LSERO%29.pdf. 
  31. "Electoral reform in Chile: Tie breaker". The Economist. 14 February 2015. https://www.economist.com/news/americas/21643216-new-voting-system-should-liven-up-politics-tie-breaker. 
  32. Laver, Michael (1998). "A new electoral system for Ireland?". The Policy Institute, Trinity College, Dublin. http://www.tcd.ie/policy-institute/assets/pdf/BP2_Laver_Electoral_System.pdf. 
  33. "Joint Committee on the Constitution". Dublin: Houses of the Oireachtas. July 2010. http://www.oireachtas.ie/viewdoc.asp?fn=/documents/Committees30thDail/J-Constitution/Report_2008/20100722.pdf. 
  34. "National projections". Monopoly Politics 2014 and the Fair Voting Solution. FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/assets/UnitedStates2014.pdf. 
  35. Lubell, Maayan (March 11, 2014). "Israel ups threshold for Knesset seats despite opposition boycott". Thomson Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-knesset-idUSBREA2A0MX20140311. 
  36. "Party Magnitude and Candidate Selection". ACE Electoral Knowledge Network. http://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/pc/pcc/pcc04/pcc04b. 
  37. O'Kelly, Michael. "The fall of Fianna Fáil in the 2011 Irish general election". Royal Statistical Society, American Statistical Association. http://www.significancemagazine.org/details/webexclusive/1048883/The-fall-of-Fianna-Fail-in-the-2011-Irish-general-election.html. 
  38. Karpov, Alexander (2008). "Measurement of disproportionality in proportional representation systems". Mathematical and Computer Modelling 48 (9–10): 1421–1438. doi:10.1016/j.mcm.2008.05.027.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mcm.2008.05.027
  39. Dunleavy, Patrick; Margetts, Helen (2004). "How proportional are the 'British AMS' systems?". Representation 40 (4): 317–329. doi:10.1080/00344890408523280. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/709/. Retrieved 25 November 2014. 
  40. Wada, Junichiro (2016). "Apportionment behind the veil of uncertainty". The Japanese Economic Review 67 (3): 348–360. doi:10.1111/jere.12093.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fjere.12093
  41. Canadian House of Commons Special Committee on Electoral Reform (December 2016). "Strengthening Democracy in Canada: Principles, Process and Public Engagement for Electoral Reform". http://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/ERRE/report-3. 
  42. "polrep: Calculate Political Representation Scores version 0.32.7 from R-Forge" (in en). https://rdrr.io/rforge/polrep/. 
  43. Kestelman, Philip (March 1999). "Quantifying Representativity". Voting Matters (10). http://www.votingmatters.org.uk/ISSUE10/P6.HTM. Retrieved 10 August 2013. 
  44. Hill, I D (May 1997). "Measuring proportionality". Voting Matters (8). http://www.mcdougall.org.uk/VM/ISSUE8/P5.HTM. 
  45. As counted from the table in http://www.wahlrecht.de/ausland/europa.htm [in German]; "Vorzugsstimme(n)" means "open list".
  46. "Party List PR". Electoral Reform Society. http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/party-list. 
  47. Gordon Gibson (2003). Fixing Canadian Democracy. The Fraser Institute. p. 76. ISBN 9780889752016. https://books.google.com/books?id=y7hFz5GawkcC&q=closed+list+PR&pg=PA58. 
  48. Gallagher, Michael; Mitchell, Paul (2005). The Politics of Electoral Systems. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-925756-0. 
  49. "The Parliamentary Electoral System in Denmark". Copenhagen: Ministry of the Interior and Health. 2011. http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/The%20Parliamentary%20Electoral%20System%20in%20DK.aspx. 
  50. "The main features of the Norwegian electoral system". Oslo: Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation. 2017-07-06. http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/kmd/information-campaigns/election_portal/the-electoral-system/the-norwegian-electoral-system.html?id=456636. 
  51. "The Swedish electoral system". Stockholm: Election Authority. 2011. http://www.val.se/sprak/engelska/general_information/index.html. 
  52. "Fair Voting/Proportional Representation". FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/reforms/fair-representation-voting/. 
  53. Amy, Douglas J. "A Brief History of Proportional Representation in the United States". FairVote. http://archive.fairvote.org/?page=647. 
  54. Tideman, Nicolaus (1995). "The Single Transferable Vote". Journal of Economic Perspectives 9 (1): 27–38. doi:10.1257/jep.9.1.27. http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/jep.9.1.27. 
  55. O’Neill, Jeffrey C. (July 2006). "Comments on the STV Rules Proposed by British Columbia". Voting Matters (22). http://www.votingmatters.org.uk/ISSUE22/INDEX.HTM. Retrieved 10 August 2013. 
  56. David M. Farrell; Ian McAllister (2006). The Australian Electoral System: Origins, Variations, and Consequences. Sydney: UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0868408583. 
  57. Gallagher, Michael. "Ireland: The Archetypal Single Transferable Vote System". http://www.community.netidea.com/ccbc/Gallagher.pdf. 
  58. "Referendum 2011: A look at the STV system". The New Zealand Herald (Auckland: The New Zealand Herald). 1 Nov 2011. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10762976. 
  59. "Change the Way We Elect? Round Two of the Debate". The Tyee (Vancouver). 30 Apr 2009. https://thetyee.ca/Views/2009/04/30/STV2/. Retrieved 21 Nov 2014. 
  60. ACE Project Electoral Knowledge Network. "Mixed Systems". https://aceproject.org/ace-en/topics/es/esd/esd03/default. 
  61. Massicotte, Louis (2004). In Search of Compensatory Mixed Electoral System for Québec (Report). https://www.institutions-democratiques.gouv.qc.ca/publications/mode_scrutin_rapport_en.pdf. 
  62. Bochsler, Daniel (May 13, 2010). "Chapter 5, How Party Systems Develop in Mixed Electoral Systems". Territory and Electoral Rules in Post-Communist Democracies. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230281424. https://books.google.com/books?id=qkCBDAAAQBAJ. 
  63. "Electoral Systems and the Delimitation of Constituencies". International Foundation for Electoral Systems. 2 Jul 2009. http://www.ifes.org/publications/electoral-systems-and-delimitation-constituencies. 
  64. Moser, Robert G. (December 2004). "Mixed electoral systems and electoral system effects: controlled comparison and cross-national analysis". Electoral Studies 23 (4): 575–599. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(03)00056-8.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0261-3794%2803%2900056-8
  65. Massicotte, Louis (September 1999). "Mixed electoral systems: a conceptual and empirical survey". Electoral Studies 18 (3): 341–366. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00063-8.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0261-3794%2898%2900063-8
  66. "Additional Member System". London: Electoral Reform Society. http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/additional-member-system. 
  67. Amy, Douglas J. "How Proportional Representation Elections Work". FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/how_proportional_representation_elections_work. 
  68. "MMP Voting System". Wellington: Electoral Commission New Zealand. 2011. http://www.elections.org.nz/voting-system/mmp-voting-system. 
  69. "Deutschland hat ein neues Wahlrecht" (in de). Zeit Online. 22 February 2013. http://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2013-02/bundestag-wahlrecht-beschluss. 
  70. "Report of the Electoral Commission on the Review of the MMP Voting System". Wellington: Electoral Commission New Zealand. 2011. http://www.elections.org.nz/events/past-events-0/2012-mmp-review/results-mmp-review. 
  71. Sean Graham (April 4, 2016). "Dual-Member Mixed Proportional: A New Electoral System for Canada". https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/e3ab993a-d264-4d30-b819-290ab5fd6b62. 
  72. Antony Hodgson (Jan 21, 2016). "Why a referendum on electoral reform would be undemocratic". The Tyee. https://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2016/01/21/Why-Referendum-on-Electoral-Reform-Undemocratic/. 
  73. Kerry Campbell (April 15, 2016). "P.E.I. electoral reform committee proposes ranked ballot". CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-electoral-reform-1.3537355. 
  74. Elections PEI (November 7, 2016). "Plebiscite Results". http://www.electionspei.ca/plebisciteresults. 
  75. Susan Bradley (November 7, 2016). "P.E.I. plebiscite favours mixed member proportional representation". CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/mixed-member-proportional-representation-in-plebiscite-1.3840172. 
  76. Eby, David (May 30, 2018). "How We Vote: 2018 Electoral Reform Referendum Report and Recommendations of the Attorney General". https://engage.gov.bc.ca/app/uploads/sites/271/2018/05/How-We-Vote-2018-Electoral-Reform-Referendum-Report-and-Recommendations-of-the-Attorney-General.pdf. 
  77. McElroy, Justin (June 2, 2018). "Know your voting systems: three types of electoral reform on B.C.'s ballot". CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/pr-electoral-reform-questions-1.4688604?cmp=rss. 
  78. "2018 Referendum on Electoral Reform: Voting Results Available". Elections BC. https://elections.bc.ca/news/2018-referendum-on-electoral-reform-voting-results-available/. 
  79. Pukelsheim, Friedrich (September 2009). "Zurich's New Apportionment". German Research 31 (2): 10–12. doi:10.1002/germ.200990024. http://www.uni-augsburg.de/pukelsheim/2008e-en.pdf. Retrieved 10 August 2014. 
  80. Balinski, Michel (February 2008). "Fair Majority Voting (or How to Eliminate Gerrymandering)". The American Mathematical Monthly 115 (2): 97–113. doi:10.1080/00029890.2008.11920503. http://www.maa.org/programs/maa-awards/writing-awards/fair-majority-voting-or-how-to-eliminate-gerrymandering. Retrieved 10 August 2014. 
  81. Akartunali, Kerem; Knight, Philip A. (January 2014). Network Models and Biproportional Apportionment for Fair Seat Allocations in the UK Elections. University of Strathclyde. http://personal.strath.ac.uk/kerem.akartunali/research/Voting_preprint.pdf. Retrieved 10 August 2014. 
  82. Smith, Warren (18 June 2006). "Comparative survey of multiwinner election methods". http://rangevoting.org/WarrenSmithPages/homepage/multisurv.pdf. 
  83. Kok, Jan; Smith, Warren. "Reweighted Range Voting – a Proportional Representation voting method that feels like range voting". http://rangevoting.org/RRV.html. 
  84. Ryan, Ivan. "Reweighted Range Voting – a Proportional Representation voting method that feels like range voting". http://rangevoting.org/RRVr.html. 
  85. Smith, Warren (6 August 2005). "Reweighted range voting – new multiwinner voting method". http://rangevoting.org/WarrenSmithPages/homepage/rerange.pdf. 
  86. "89th Annual Academy Awards of Merit for Achievements during 2017". https://www.oscars.org/sites/oscars/files/89aa_rules.pdf. 
  87. "Rule Twenty-Two: Special Rules for the Visual Effects Award". http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule22.html. 
  88. Brill, Markus; Laslier, Jean-François; Skowron, Piotr (2016). "Multiwinner Approval Rules as Apportionment Methods". arXiv:1611.08691 [cs.GT]. //arxiv.org/archive/cs.GT
  89. Aziz, Haris; Serge Gaspers, Joachim Gudmundsson, Simon Mackenzie, Nicholas Mattei, Toby Walsh (2014). "Computational Aspects of Multi-Winner Approval Voting". Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems. pp. 107–115. ISBN 978-1-4503-3413-6. 
  90. Smith, Warren (8 March 2005). ""Asset voting" scheme for multiwinner elections". http://rangevoting.org/WarrenSmithPages/homepage/multiwin.pdf. 
  91. Dodgson, Charles (1884). "The Principles of Parliamentary Representation". London: Harrison and Sons. https://archive.org/details/ThePrinciplesOfParliamentaryRepresentation. "The Elector must understand that, in giving his vote to A, he gives it to him as his absolute property, to use for himself, or to transfer to other Candidates, or to leave unused." 
  92. Smith, Warren. "Asset voting – an interesting and very simple multiwinner voting system". http://rangevoting.org/Asset.html. 
  93. M. Balinski & R. Laraki (2010). Majority Judgment.. MIT. ISBN 978-0-262-01513-4. 
  94. Bosworth, Stephen; Corr, Ander; Leonard, Stevan (July 8, 2019). "Legislatures Elected by Evaluative Proportional Representation (EPR): an Algorithm". Journal of Political Risk 7 (8). http://www.jpolrisk.com/legislatures-elected-by-evaluative-proportional-representation-epr-an-algorithm-v2/. Retrieved August 19, 2019. 
  95. Adams, John (1776). "Thoughts on Government". Massachusetts Historical Society. http://www.masshist.org/publications/apde/portia.php?&id=PJA04d040. 
  96. Hoag, Clarence; Hallett, George (1926). Proportional Representation. New York: The Macmillan Company. http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008357249;view=1up;seq=5. 
  97. Madison, James. "Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, Wednesday, June 6". TeachingAmericanHistory.org. http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/debates/0606-2/. 
  98. Wilson, James (1804). "Vol 2, Part II, Ch.1 Of the constitutions of the United States and of Pennsylvania – Of the legislative department, I, of the election of its members". The Works of the Honourable James Wilson. Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/jwilson/jwilson2.htm. Retrieved 5 August 2014. 
  99. "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790, art.I,§ VII, Of districts for electing Senators". Duquesne University. http://www.duq.edu/academics/gumberg-library/pa-constitution/texts-of-the-constitution/1790. 
  100. Hoag, Effective Voting (1914), p. 31
  101. Swain, Civics for Montana Students, 1912, p. 163
  102. Newman, Hare-Clark in Tasmania, p. 7-10
  103. Hirczy de Miño, Wolfgang (1997). "Malta: Single-Transferable Vote with Some Twists". ACE Electoral Knowledge Network. http://aceproject.org/regions-en/countries-and-territories/MT/case-studies/malta-single-transferable-vote-with-some-twists-1997. 
  104. "The Hare-Clark System of Proportional Representation". Melbourne: Proportional Representation Society of Australia. http://www.prsa.org.au/hareclar.htm. 
  105. "Adoption of Plan E". City of Cambridge, MA. http://www.cambridgema.gov/election/programsandservices/cambridgemunicipalelections/Cambridge-City-Charter/adoptionofplane.aspx. 
  106. "Proportional Representation in Most Robust Democracies". http://www.fairvote.org/proportional_representation_in_most_robust_democracies. 
  107. Jansen, Harold John (1998). "The Single Transferable Vote in Alberta and Manitoba". University of Alberta. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0004/NQ29051.pdf. 
  108. Santucci, Jack (2016-11-10). "Party Splits, Not Progressives" (in en). American Politics Research 45 (3): 494–526. doi:10.1177/1532673x16674774. ISSN 1532-673X.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1532673x16674774
  109. Barber, Kathleen (1995). Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0814206607. 
  110. Rokkan, Stein (1970) (in en). Citizens, elections, parties: approaches to the comparative study of the processes of development. McKay. https://archive.org/details/citizenselection0000rokk. 
  111. Boix, Carles (1999). "Setting the Rules of the Game: The Choice of Electoral Systems in Advanced Democracies". The American Political Science Review 93 (3): 609–624. doi:10.2307/2585577. ISSN 0003-0554.  https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2585577
  112. Ahmed, Amel (2012). Democracy and the Politics of Electoral System Choice: Engineering Electoral Dominance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139382137. ISBN 9781139382137. http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ref/id/CBO9781139382137. 
  113. Cusack, Thomas R.; Iversen, Torben; Soskice, David (2007). "Economic Interests and the Origins of Electoral Systems". The American Political Science Review 101 (3): 373–391. doi:10.1017/S0003055407070384. ISSN 0003-0554.  https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055407070384
  114. ACE Project: The Electoral Knowledge Network. "Electoral Systems Comparative Data, World Map". http://aceproject.org/epic-en/CDMap?question=ES005&set_language=en. 
  115. ACE Project: The Electoral Knowledge Network. "Electoral Systems Comparative Data, Table by Country". http://aceproject.org/epic-en/CDTable?question=ES005&view=country&set_language=en. 
  116. "Republic of Armenia, Parliamentary Elections, 2 April 2017". http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/armenia/293546. 
  117. "Greek MPs approve end to bonus seats, lower voting age" (in en). Reuters. 2016-07-21. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eurozone-greece-electoral-bill-idUSKCN1011NS. 
  118. "Parliament votes to change election law | Kathimerini" (in en). http://www.ekathimerini.com/248820/article/ekathimerini/news/parliament-votes-to-change-election-law. 
More
©Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons-Attribution ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Political Science
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
HandWiki
View Times: 6.0K
Entry Collection: HandWiki
Revision: 1 time (View History)
Update Date: 14 Oct 2022
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback