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Paucar, N.E.;  Sato, C. Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29157 (accessed on 20 April 2024).
Paucar NE,  Sato C. Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29157. Accessed April 20, 2024.
Paucar, N. Evelin, Chikashi Sato. "Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29157 (accessed April 20, 2024).
Paucar, N.E., & Sato, C. (2022, October 13). Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/29157
Paucar, N. Evelin and Chikashi Sato. "Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems." Encyclopedia. Web. 13 October, 2022.
Wetland-Microbial Fuel Cell Systems
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en15186841

Water, energy, and food are indispensable for sustainable economic development. Despite nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, being essential for plant growth and thus food supplies, those present in wastewater are considered an environmental burden. While microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are receiving much interest, combining wastewater treatment with an MFC has emerged as an option for low-cost wastewater treatment. Among others, a constructed wetland (CW) coupled with an MFC (CW-MFC) has the potential to provide a low carbon footprint and low-energy wastewater treatment, as well as nutrient and energy recovery from wastewater. The organic and nutrient removal and power generation by the integrated CW-MFC systems are affected by a number of factors including the organic loading rate, hydraulic retention time, system design, plant species, dissolved oxygen, substrate/media type, influent feeding mode, electrode materials and spacing, and external resistance. 

microbial fuel cell constructed wetland hydroponics

1. Introduction

Population growth, urbanization, and industrialization contribute to the rapid depletion of nonrenewable energy, deterioration of water resources [1], growing food demand, and increasing need for wastewater treatment. In past years, wastewater was seen as liquid waste that requires treatment before disposal into the environment. In recent years, however, wastewater has come to be viewed as an untapped steady source of fresh water, nutrients, and renewable energy [2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Unlike other renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, the generation and availability of wastewater are consistent with the human/animal population and their activities and are thus quite predictable. A microbial fuel cell coupled with a constructed wetland is an appealing concept that has the potential to provide highly effective and sustainable resource recovery, bio-electricity generation, and wastewater treatment at the same time.
Wastewater occurs in large quantities, and its treatment with traditional technologies is energy intensive. In conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), it is estimated that between 950 and 2850 kJ of energy is required to treat 1 m3 of wastewater [9][10]. In addition, municipal wastewater alone accounts for approximately 5% of greenhouse gas, mainly methane, emissions [11]. In the United States, about 30.2 billion kWh of electricity is consumed annually in WWTPs, which accounts for 3 to 4% of the nation’s electricity demands [12]. Globally, an estimated 3% of the world’s electricity is consumed for wastewater treatment, and 50% of the wastewater treatment costs are used for sludge treatment and disposal [13][14]. On the other hand, the chemical energy contained in municipal wastewater is estimated to be at least 13 kJ/g-COD, which is approximately nine times more than the current energy demand for its treatment [15][16]. In recent years, technologies capable of recovering energy from wastewater with minimum energy input are receiving increased attention.
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are pollutants present in wastewater discharges, which can cause eutrophication in receiving water bodies. Eutrophication is a worldwide environmental issue [17]. The conventional methods for treating large volumes of wastewater are not only costly but also wasteful of the abundant chemical energy and nutrients hidden in wastewater [18]. In chemical terms, 1 m3 of domestic water contains approximately 300–600 g of COD, 40–60 g of N primarily in the form of ammonium and organic compounds, 5–20 g of P mainly in the forms of phosphate and organic compounds, 10–20 g of sulfur (S) in the form of sulfate, and trace amounts of heavy metals [11]. Although P and N can be removed and recovered from wastewater [6][19], conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) employ costly, energy-intensive processes such as chemical precipitation for the P recovery [19] and biological nitrification-denitrification or Anammox processes to transform various N forms to N2 [20].
Wastewaters from food processing and agricultural activities, in particular, contain high levels of nutrients [21] that are the key constituents of fertilizers [14] and can be exploited as resources. There is an increasing trend of research on the development of technologies to recover nutrients from wastewater in a sustainable manner [6][22]. Such technologies can alleviate future fertilizer demands and contribute to a healthier environment [23][24][25].
Initial research on microbial fuel cells (MFCs) was mainly targeted toward electricity generation promoting bioelectrochemical systems [26][27]. Later, MFCs emerged as alternative low carbon footprint wastewater-treatment technologies to convert chemical energy contained in wastewater into electrical energy [28][29][30][31]. MFCs possess the ability to generate electricity using wastewater as an energy source while simultaneously treating the wastewater with little or no external energy input. In recent years, the application of these technologies has been expanded to nutrient recovery with added benefits such as reduced sludge generation and energy recovery and conservation [6][32].
The basic components of an MFC are an anode electrode that is situated in the anaerobic chamber and a cathode electrode that is either in the cathode chamber or under an aerobic environment. In the anode chamber, electrochemical active bacteria (EAB) convert the chemical energy in wastewater to electrical energy directly through microbial electron transport systems [33][34][35][36][37] with only a small loss of energy, compared to other wastewater treatments such as electricity generation via methane production in an anaerobic digestion process [32]. To prevent short-circuiting, the anode and cathode chambers are separated by an ion-exchange membrane or proton exchange membrane (PEM) in a dual-chamber MFC. The membrane separator allows protons to migrate to the cathode while containing anolyte (substrate) within the anode chamber [38]. The PEM also serves as a barrier to maintaining EAB in the anode chamber [39]. Since the membrane separator is generally expensive and requires maintenance [38], membrane-less single chamber MFCs have also attracted attention.

2. CW

A constructed wetland (CW) is an engineered ecological wastewater treatment system that mimics natural water purification processes [40][41]. In CWs, plants, substrate, soil, and microorganisms play important roles in providing symbiotic physical, chemical, and biological functions, including filtration, ion exchange, physicochemical adsorption, chemical precipitation and decomposition, bioabsorption, and microbial reactions such as ammonification, nitrification, denitrification, and biodegradation [42]. Through the processes, various organic and inorganic contaminants are removed [43]. Wetland plants have been shown to increase the density of bacteria by 10 times [44], favoring the growth of exoelectrogens to improve nutrient removal [45]. The CWs generally use plants with limited commercial importance (contrary to hydroponics) for the removal of pollutants in wastewater [46]. The CWs possess the following advantages: (i) low-cost, simple maintenance and operation, (ii) low energy consumption, (iii) eco-friendly, (iv) excellent landscape integration [17][41][47][48][49], and (v) suitability to different climatic conditions [50][51]. The CWs have been employed as a cost-effective viable option for treating low-strength wastewaters, and offer reliable, sustainable, and green treatment for developed areas, as well as economically underserved communities [45]. The performance of the CWs that treat the high-strength wastewater is prone to be affected by faster substrate clogging [52][53]. As high-strength wastewater poses a high oxygen demand, intermittent aeration can be an appropriate strategy to achieve satisfactory performance in the removal of organic pollutants and nitrogen [42]. Additionally, a longer hydraulic retention time is required for efficient treatment of the high-strength wastewater [54].

3. CW-MFC

The CW coupled with an MFC is a relatively new technology for concurrent wastewater treatment and electricity generation [55]. A typical CW-MFC system has anodic and cathodic regions, which are separated by the media (e.g., soil, sand, and gravel), fibrous materials, or proton exchange membranes [45]. The CWs may have one or more types of media to allow wastewater to flow through and microorganisms to grow on their surface. The anaerobic and aerobic transformations of chemical substances take place in the anaerobic and aerobic regions, respectively [37][56]. In general, the anaerobic region is formed near the bottom of the CW, while the aerobic region is naturally produced adjacent to the air–water interface. These regions are characterized by a redox gradient.
In the CW-MFC system, the treatment of wastewater and the generation of electricity are simultaneously accomplished by the complex activities of the plants, rhizodeposition, and microorganisms [41]. The vegetation has been shown to improve the bacterial activity to decompose organics [56][57]. The microorganisms in the rhizosphere have been known to break down rhizodeposition products, as well as chemical compounds in wastewater, and thus they play a crucial role in water purification processes [56][57]. The plant stroma furnishes a large specific surface area that can enhance the adsorption of electron-transfer mediators, providing advantages to the CW-MFC systems [45][58].
Both water purification and electricity generation rely on the microbial oxidation of organic and inorganic matter in wastewater [37]. The CW-MFC can significantly improve its performance, compared to the standalone CW or an MFC [40][57][59][60][61][62][63]. Compared to the standalone CW system, the CW-MFC system increased the wastewater treatment efficiency (in terms of COD removal) by 27–49% [64] and yielded a 22% higher NH4+-N-removal efficiency [65]. The CW-MFC can be an innovative technology that has the potential to become an economical, self-sustaining, and eco-friendly method to accomplish both wastewater treatment and electricity generation at the same time [49][57][61][63].

4. Hydroponics

A hydroponic (Hyp) system was included in the literature, as it is similar to the CW. In a Hyp system, edible and/or ornamental plants can be grown at any time of the year in a protected and soilless environment. Since the Hyp systems are soilless systems, they can be applied in densely populated urban areas where available land is limited or in arid regions for wastewater reuse in agricultural practices. The use of the Hyp system as the tertiary wastewater treatment for nutrient removal and recovery has been explored [66].
In the Hyp system, nutrients contained in wastewater and carbon dioxide released from wastewater can be captured and stored by the plants as biomass, while oxygen is produced via photosynthesis [67]. Consequently, the Hyp system reduces the risk of environmental hazards. The mechanisms of the Hyp system for the removal of pollutants are similar to those of the CW system, involving the combination of the physical, chemical, and biological processes with microorganisms, plants, and media-based interactive reactions [67][68]. The hydroponic plants can improve bacterial activity by releasing rhizodeposition and oxygen into water [48]. The plants are responsible for most of the nutrient removal [69].
The suggested economic benefits of using the Hyp system for wastewater treatment [70][71] are similar to those of the CW systems: i.e., (i) pollutants can be removed, (ii) nutrients (P and N) can be removed and used simultaneously, (iii) maintenance and energy costs can be reduced [67], and (iv) the system can be implemented onsite as less area is required compared to the conventional wastewater treatment [72]. The use of the Hyp technology can result in environmental and economic gain contributing to food supplies and economic opportunities [67].

5. Hydroponics-MFC (Hyp-MFC)

The Hyp-MFC systems are similar to the CW-MFC systems. The major difference, however, is that the Hyp-MFC system is a soilless system in which plants can directly grow in water using a floating device with or without media. Only a few studies have been dedicated to the Hyp-MFC system [60][73]. The factors affecting the nutrient removal and electricity generation are similar to those of the CW-MFC: i.e., the type of the systems, plants, and substrates; influent feeding modes; external resistance; electrode materials; and electrode spacing; in addition to the basic operational parameters such as the HRT, OLR, DO, and temperature. The major advantage of the Hyp-MFC system is that the substrate clogging can be prevented and the contact between roots and dissolved nutrients can be enhanced for nutrient removal. To grow edible plants, its design needs to be more innovative to protect public health. Studies have shown that the electrodes facilitate microbial respiration and enhance microbial growth kinetics to break down organics in wastewater [55][63][74]. The Hyp-MFC system can be a potential candidate for simultaneous energy and nutrient recovery and wastewater treatment.

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N. Evelin Paucar
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Chikashi Sato
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Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 14 Oct 2022
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