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References

1. Online Etymology Dictionary, Zen (n.) https://www.etymonline.com/word/zen
2. Jayarava, Nāmapada: a guide to names in the Triratna Buddhist Order
3. William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN:978-0791435809, pages 171-177, 222
4. Jan Gonda (1963), The Vision of Vedic Poets, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN:978-3110153156, pages 289-301
5. George Feuerstein, Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana) http://www.adishakti.org/_/yoga_and_meditation_dhyana_by_georg_feuerstein.htm
6. Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/gunaratana/wheel351.html#ch1.3
7. Bronkhorst and Wynne, among others, have discussed the influence of Vedic and Jain thought and practices on Buddhism. The "burning up" of defilements by means of austerities is a typical Jain practice, which was rejected by the Buddha.[15][16]
8. Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, dhyana http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=dhyana&direct=au
9. Though rūpa may also refer to the body. Arbel (2017) refers to the jhana as psycho-somatic experiences.
10. Vetter 1988.
11. Gethin 1992.
12. Analayo, Early Buddhist Meditation Studies, p.69-70, 80
13. Polak 2011.
14. Vetter 1988, p. XXV.
15. Polak refers to Vetter, who noted that in the suttas right effort leads to a calm state of mind. When this calm and self-restraint had been reached, the Buddha is described as sitting down and attaining the first jhana, in an almost natural way.[7]
16. Arbel 2017.
17. Ruth Fuller-Sasaki, The Record of Lin-Ji
18. Bucknell 1993.
19. See also, among others:* Majjhima Nikaya 26, Ariyapariyesana Sutta, The Noble Search* Majjhima Nikaya 111, Anuppada Sutta* AN 05.028, Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.026.than.html
20. According to Bucknell, while the commentarial tradition explains vitarka and vicara as the concentration on an object of meditation, the terms may simply refer to "the normal process of discursive thought."[22] Bucknell refers to:* Martin Stuart-Fox, "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 12.2 (1989): 79-110* Paul Griffiths, "Buddhist Jhana: A form-critical study," Religion 13 (1983): 55-68According to Fox, referring to Rhys Davids and Stede, when vitarka-vicara are mentioned in tandem, they are one expression, "to cover all varieties of thinking, including sustained and focused thought. It is thinking in this inclusive sense that the meditator suppresses through concentration when he attains one-ness of mind and thus moves from first to second jhana."[23]According to Polak, in the Pali Canon vitarka-vicara mostly refers to thinking about the sense-impressions, which gives rise to further egoistical thinking and action.[7] The process of sense-withdrawal, right effort, and dhyana, stops the "fueling" of this process of sense-impressions-thoughts-egoistic thinking.[24][7][8]Compare the Yogacara term manas, meaning both "intentionality"[25] or 'self-centered thinking',[26] and "discriminative thinking" (vikalpa). The provess of meditation aims at "non-thinking," stopping both these cognitive processes.[25]
21. Vetter 1988, p. XXVI, note 9.
22. Bucknell 1993, p. 375-376.
23. The common translation, based on the commentarial interpretation of dhyana as expanding states of absorption, translates sampasadana as "internal assurance." Yet, as Bucknell explains, it also means "tranquilizing," which is more apt in this context.[22] See also Passaddhi.
24. Upekkhā is one of the Brahmaviharas.
25. For instance in AN 5.28, the Buddha states (Thanissaro, 1997.):"When a monk has developed and pursued the five-factored noble right concentration in this way, then whichever of the six higher knowledges he turns his mind to know and realize, he can witness them for himself whenever there is an opening....""If he wants, he wields manifold supranormal powers. Having been one he becomes many; having been many he becomes one. He appears. He vanishes. He goes unimpeded through walls, ramparts, and mountains as if through space. He dives in and out of the earth as if it were water. He walks on water without sinking as if it were dry land. Sitting crosslegged he flies through the air like a winged bird. With his hand he touches and strokes even the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful. He exercises influence with his body even as far as the Brahma worlds. He can witness this for himself whenever there is an opening ..."
26. Fox 1989, p. 83-87.
27. Fox 1989, p. 85-87.
28. Fox 1989.
29. Wynne 2007, p. 106; 140, note 58.
30. Vetter 1988, p. 13.
31. Wynne 2007, p. 140, note 58.
32. Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library, http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/religious-experience-early-buddhism 
33. Wynne 2007, p. 106-107; 140, note 58.
34. Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library, http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/religious-experience-early-buddhism 
35. Gethin 1992, p. 162-182.
36. Gethin 2004, p. 217, note 26.
37. Polak 2011, p. 25.
38. Gethin 2004, p. 217-218.
39. Gethin 2004, p. 203-204.
40. Gethin 2004, p. 204.
41. Gethin 2004, p. 208.
42. Gethin 2004, p. 216.
43. Gethin 2004, p. 215.
44. Gethin 2004, p. 217.
45. Gombrich 1997, p. 84-85.
46. Gombrich 1997, p. 62.
47. Wynne 2007, p. 106.
48. Wynne 2007, p. 106-107.
49. Quli 2008.
50. Majjhima NIkaya 111, Anuppada Sutta http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.111.than.html
51. Steven Sutcliffe, Religion: Empirical Studies. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 135.
52. Chandima Wijebandara, Early Buddhism, Its Religious and Intellectual Milieu. Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya, 1993, page 22..
53. Samuel 2008.
54. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 95;122–123.
55. Kalupahana 1994, p. 24.
56. Wynne 2007.
57. Wynne 2007, p. 29.
58. Walshe, Maurice (trans.) (1995). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN:0-86171-103-3.
59. Matsumoto 1997, p. 242.
60. It is important to note that of the 200 or so Upanishads, only the first 10 or 12 are considered the oldest and principal Upanishads. Among these 10 or 12 principal Upanishads, the Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kausitaki show Buddhist influence.[59] The Brihadaranyaka, Jaiminiya-Upanisad-Brahmana and the Chandogya Upanishads were composed during the pre-Buddhist era while the rest of these 12 oldest Upanishads are dated to the last few centuries BCE.
61. Bronkhorst 1993.
62. Nanamoli 1995.
63. Vetter 1988, pp. 5–6.
64. Wynne 2007, p. 44, see also 45–49.
65. Wynne 2007, p. 196.
66. Wynne 2007, p. 50.
67. According to Bronkhorst, the account of the Buddha practicing under Uddaka Ramaputta and Alara Kalama is entirely fictitious, and meant to flesh out the mentioning of those names in the post-enlightenment narrative in Majjhima Nikaya 36.[3][65] According to Bronkhorst, the Buddha's teachings developed primarily in response to Jain teachings, not Brahmanical teachings.[3]
68. Wynne 2007, p. 56.
69. Wynne 2007, p. 29-31.
70. Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation. [1].
71. Wynne 2007, p. 41, 56.
72. Wynne 2007, p. 49.
73. Wynne 2007, p. 42.
74. See also Pratītyasamutpāda.
75. Wynne 2007, p. 39.
76. Wynne 2007, p. 41.
77. Wynne 2007, p. 35.
78. M II.228.16 ff according to the PTS numbering.
79. Wynne 2007, p. 43.
80. Wynne 2007, p. 44.
81. Wynne 2007, p. 99.
82. Vishvapani (rev.) (1997). Review: Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Retrieved 2011-2-17 from "Western Buddhist Review" at http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol5/the-origin-of-buddhist-meditation.html.
83. According to the Theravada tradition dhyana must be combined with vipassana,[79] which gives insight into the three marks of existence and leads to detachment and "the manifestation of the path".[80]
84. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, One Tool Among Many. The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html
85. In Zen Buddhism, this problem has appeared over the centuries in the disputes over sudden versus gradual enlightenment.[82]
86. Schmithausen 1981.
87. Vetter 1988, pp. xxi–xxii.
88. Vetter 1988, pp. xxi-xxxvii.
89. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 252.
90. Nathan Katz, Buddhist Images of Human Perfection: The Arahant of the Sutta Piṭaka Compared with the Bodhisattva and the Mahāsiddha. Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, page 78.
91. Vetter 1988, p. xxvii.
92. Vetter 1988, p. xxxi.
93. Bronkhorst 1993, pp. 100–101.
94. Bronkhorst 1993, p. 131.
95. Vetter 1988, pp. xxi–xxxvii.
96. Gombrich 1997, p. 96-134.
97. Vetter 1988, p. xxxv.
98. Wynne 2007, p. 105.
99. Williams 2000, p. 45.
100. Vetter 1988, p. xxviii.
101. Vetter 1988, p. xxix.
102. Vetter 1988, p. xxx.
103. Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary on the Anuppada Sutta, MN#111 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.111.than.html
104. Rose 2016, p. 60-61.
105. Gunarathana refers to Buddhaghosa, who explains samadhi etymologically as "the centering of consciousness and consciousness concomitants evenly and rightly on a single object [...] the state in virtue of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object, undistracted and unscattered (Vism.84–85; PP.85)."[14]
106. Sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry and doubt
107. According to Peter Harvey, access concentration is described at Digha Nikaya I, 110, among other places: "The situation at D I, 110, then, can be seen as one where the hearer of a discourse enters a state which, while not an actual jhana, could be bordering on it. As it is free from hindrances, it could be seen as 'access' concentration with a degree of wisdom." Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 95. See also: Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind, page 170.
108. The equivalent of upacāra-samādhi used in Tibetan commentaries is nyer-bsdogs.[102]
109. Pāli: nimitta
110. Tse-fu Kuan, Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches Through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources. Routledge, 2008, pages 65–67.
111. Venerable Sujivo, Access and Fixed Concentration. Vipassana Tribune, Vol 4 No 2, July 1996, Buddhist Wisdom Centre, Malaysia. Available here. http://www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebmed020.htm
112. According to Sujiva, there are five aspects of jhāna mastery:[105] Mastery in adverting: the ability to advert[clarification needed] to the jhāna factors one by one after emerging from the jhāna, wherever desired, whenever she/ he wants, and for as long as one wants. Mastery in attaining: the ability to enter upon jhāna quickly. Mastery in resolving: the ability to remain in the jhāna for exactly the pre-determined length of time. Mastery in emerging: the ability to emerge from jhāna quickly without difficulty. Mastery in reviewing: the ability to review the jhāna and its factors with retrospective knowledge immediately after adverting to them.
113. Rose 2016, p. 61.
114. Rose 2016, p. 60.
115. See also:* Leigh Brasington, Interpretations of the Jhanas* Simple|Sutta, Jhana Wars!* Dhamma Wheel, The great Jhana debate[107] http://www.leighb.com/jhanantp.htm
116. Buddhadasa; Bhikkhu Tanissaro; Arbel 2017
117. Shankman 2008.
118. See Golman's The Varieties of Meditative Experience, published early 1970s, which praises the Visuddhimagga as a masterguide for the practice of meditation.
119. Bhikkhu Thanissaro, Concentration and Discernment http://www.dhammatalks.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Thanissaro_Jhanas_Concentration_Wisdom.htm
120. Shankman 2008, p. 117.
121. Shankman 2008, p. 136.
122. Shankman 2008, p. 137.
123. Shankman 2008, p. 137-138.
124. See also Bronkhorst (1993), Two Traditions of Meditation in ancient India; Wynne (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation; and Polak (2011), Reexaming Jhana.
125. Vetter 1988, p. xxxvi.
126. Shankman 2008, p. 80.
127. Rose 2016, p. 59.
128. Richard Shankman, The Experience of Samadhi – an in depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambala publications 2008
129. Samaññaphala Sutta: "With the abandoning of pleasure and pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation and distress — he enters and remains in the fourth jhāna: purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither-pleasure nor pain...With his mind thus concentrated, purified, and bright, unblemished, free from defects, pliant, malleable, steady, and attained to imperturbability, the monk directs and inclines it to the knowledge of the ending of the mental fermentations. He discerns, as it has come to be, that 'This is suffering... This is the origination of suffering... This is the cessation of suffering... This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering... These are mental fermentations... This is the origination of fermentations... This is the cessation of fermentations... This is the way leading to the cessation of fermentations."[118]
130. Arbel 2017, p. 16.
131. Dhyāna is a central aspect of Buddhist practice in Chan:* Nan Huai-Chin: "Intellectual reasoning is just another spinning of the sixth consciousness, whereas the practice of meditation is the true entry into the Dharma."[120]* According to Sheng Yen, meditative concentration is necessary, calling samādhi one of the requisite factors for progress on the path toward enlightenment.[121]
132. Deleanu, Florin (1992); Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42-57. https://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/mindfulness-of-breathing-in-the-dhayana-sutra_florin-deleanu_1992.pdf
133. Fischer-Schreiber 2008, p. 103.
134. Ven. Dr. Yuanci, A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts , The Buddhist Academy of China. http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/31YuanciFINAL.pdf
135. Sheng, Yen. "Fundamentals of Meditation". http://www.chancenter.org/chanctr/ddp/talks/zuochan.html. 
136. Sōtō Zen Text Project. "Zazengi translation". Stanford University. http://web.stanford.edu/group/scbs/sztp3/translations/shobogenzo/translations/zazengi/zazengi.html. Retrieved 15 November 2015. 
137. Sōtō Zen Text Project. "Fukan Zazengi". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2008-04-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20080429201213/http://www.stanford.edu/group/scbs/sztp3/translations/gongyo_seiten/translations/part_3/fukan_zazengi.html. Retrieved 2008-03-26. 
138. Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 44
139. group+note
140. Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 92
141. Blyth 1966.
142. Loori 2006.
143. Lachs 2006.
144. B. Alan Wallace, The Bridge of Quiescence: Experiencing Tibetan Buddhist Meditation. Carus Publishing Company, 1998, pages 215–216.
145. Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 264-5
146. B. Alan Wallace, The Attention Revolution: Unlocking the Power of the Focused Mind. Wisdom Publications, 2006, page xii.
147. Johannes Bronkhorst (1993). The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 45–49, 68–70, 78–81, 96–98, 112–119. ISBN 978-81-208-1114-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=AZbZDP8MRJoC. 
148. Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. pp. 283–284. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA283. 
149. James G. Lochtefeld, Ph.D. (2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA196. 
150. Wujastyk 2011, p. 33.
151. Feuerstein 1978, p. 108.
152. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. x.
153. Moving Inward: The Journey from Asana to Pratyahara Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy. http://www.himalayaninstitute.org/Yogaplus/Article.aspx?id=934
154. Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27.
155. Robert Thurman, The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 34.
156. Woods, James Haughton, trans. (1914). The Yoga System of Patanjali with commentary Yogabhashya attributed to Veda Vyasa and Tattva Vaicharadi by Vacaspati Misra. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. https://archive.org/details/yogasystempataj00vcgoog. 
157. An Outline of the Religious Literature of India, By John Nicol Farquhar p.132
158. Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN:0-86171-331-1.
159. Hagerty et al. 2008, "EEG Power and Coherence Analysis of an Expert Meditator in the Eight Jhanas" [2]
160. Leigh Brasington 2010 "The Neurological Correlates of the Jhanas. A Tentative Hypothesis" [3]