1. Life and Education

William Freer Bale, son of R. O. Bale was awarded a scholarship to Cornell University from Odessa, Schuyler County, New York after successfully passing an examination.^[1] Bale graduated from Cornell in 1932. In 1936 he completed his Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Rochester.^[2]

2. Atomic Energy Project

The Atomic Energy Project at the University of Rochester was a graduate teaching program. Stafford L. Warren directed the Department of Radiology and the project had three divisions. Bale headed the Radiology and Biophysics division that worked largely on radioactive materials—for example, radium, radon, plutonium, and polonium. James Newell Stannard was responsible for 2 sections, the Radiation Toxicology section and the Radioautography section. Harold Hodge headed the Pharmacology and Toxicology division that focused on Uranium including inhalation studies. Joe W. Howland, M.D. headed the Medical Services division. Herbert Mermagen worked in the Medical Physics section as a radiological physicist, known today as a health physicist.^[3][4][5]

Bale performed research in X-ray diffraction of tooth and bone tissue. At Rochester responsible for development of dipping type counter tube for the determination of radioactivity in solutions. Responsible for the coordination of radioactive tracer research at Rochester and during World War II worked with the Manhattan Project performing uranium toxicology studies.

At Rochester, Bale worked with George Hoyt Whipple.^[6] The discoveries of artificial radioactivity by Joliot-Curie and Fermi and the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence with its capability of producing useful amounts of radioactive iron (⁵⁹Fe) permitted Whipple, Paul F. Hahn, and Bale in 1937 to begin an examination of the nature of iron absorption and utilization.^[7]

In 1951 upon retirement from the University of Rochester, Bale became a Consultant in the Division of Biology and Medicine, Biophysics Branch, for the Atomic Energy Commission.

3. Radon and Miners

As early as the 1920s, German scientists were proposing that radon was the cause of the great excess of lung cancers (Ludewig et al. 1924).^[8] Data from this research was collected during autopsies. From the 1820s to 1920s over 400 mine workers from a particular region were found to have died of `lung cancer` separate from other causes of death. Even with collective evidence, it was not until the 1950s, thanks in part to W.F. Bale, that it was accepted by researchers that radon was the major cause of radiation damage to lung tissue in mine workers.^[9] Also discovered, was that tin, iron and uranium miners experience much higher levels of radon than coal miners.^[10]

4. Human Radiation Research Experiments

Dr. Bale was the contact person at the University of Rochester for correspondence between Rochester and the Los Alamos Laboratory pertaining to the human plutonium study.^[11] Bale was involved in the experiments that injected plutonium into human research subjects or ‘patients’. The human subjects were informed that these experiments were important to the war effort. The patients were told that the radioactive material had the potential to be hazardous in large doses but that the patients would receive small amounts that were not believed to be of any significant risk. Again, the emphasis was placed on the importance to the war effort. Bale would only select people that volunteer for the research and were eager to cooperate. Among those involved included: Albert Frenkel, Dorraine Leake, Helen Van Alstine, and Nat Cedars.

5. Select Awards and Honors

Reviewer, Cancer Research Journal

• Sigma Xi member
• Speaker, 112th Annual Meeting in St. Louis, American Association for the Advancement of Science, March 1946
• Speaker, 1947 Meeting, National Academy of Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Blood Protein Studies with Labeled Elements.
• Speaker, Conference on the Use of Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers and Therapeutic Agents, Vanderbilt University^[12][13]

6. Select Publications

• Apparatus for the Rapid Determination of β‐Ray Activity in Solutions^[14]
• Radioactive iron and its metabolism in anemia. Its absorption, transportation, and utilization^[15]
• A Combined Voltage Regulating and Quenching Circuit for the Geiger‐Müller Counter^[16]
• Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products, Bale and Shapiro.^[17]

7. List of Publications

7.1. Thesis & Dissertation

• William F. Bale, X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND TOOTH SUBSTANCE, University of Rochester, Ph.D. Dissertation, (1936).^[18]

7.2. Journal Articles

1980s

• O'Connor, S. W.; Bale, W. F. (1984). "Accessibility of circulating immunoglobulin G to the extravascular compartment of solid rat tumors". Cancer Res. 44 (9): 3719–23. PMID 6744289. 
• Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1983). "Iodine monochloride (IC1) iodination techniques". Meth. Enzymol. 92: 277–92. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(83)92025-6. 
• Bale, W. F.; Contreras, M. A.; Grady, E. D. (1980). "Factors influencing localization of labeled antibodies in tumors". Cancer Res. 40 (8 Pt 2): 2965–72. PMID 7397692. 

1970s

• Helmkamp, R. W.; Bale, W. F.; Hrynyszyn, V. (1979). "The determination of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Bi in human urine by direct extraction on nickel". Int J Appl Radiat Isot 30 (4): 237–46. doi:10.1016/0020-708X(79)90065-6. PMID 447425. 
• Izzo, M. J.; Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F. (1977). "Localization in rat skin transplants of purified ¹²⁵I-labeled xenogeneic histocompatibility antibody". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 154 (2): 184–7. doi:10.3181/00379727-154-39633. PMID 320599. 
• Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1976). "Preferential localization and rate of loss of labeled alloantibody from rat tumors and skin transplants carrying the corresponding alloantigen". Cancer Res. 36 (8): 2868–73. PMID 58724. 
• Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Hrynyszyn, V.; Contreras, M. A. (1975). "The determination of ²¹⁰Po in urine". Health Phys 29 (5): 663–71. doi:10.1097/00004032-197511000-00004. PMID 1193877. 
• Bale, W. F.; Contreras, M. A.; Izzo, M. J.; della Penta, D.; Buchsbaum, D. J. (1974). "Preferential in-vivo localization of ¹²⁵I-labeled antibody in a carcinogen-induced syngeneic rat tumor". Prog Exp Tumor Res. Progress in Tumor Research 19: 270–83. doi:10.1159/000395861. ISBN 978-3-8055-1762-1. PMID 4438642. 
• Izzo, M. J.; Buchsbaum, D. J.; Bale, W. F. (1972). "Localization of an ¹²⁵I-labeled rat transplantation antibody in tumors carrying the corresponding antigen". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 139 (4): 1185–8. doi:10.3181/00379727-139-36326. PMID 4112428. 

1960s

• Contreras, M. D.; Bale, W. F. (1968). "Endotoxin, epinephrine, and ellagic acid effects on the radiation-sensitized walker 256 rat carcinosarcoma". Radiat. Res. 36 (1): 166–79. doi:10.2307/3572548. Bibcode: 1968RadR...36..166C. 
• Marrack, D.; Kubala, M.; Corry, P.; Leavens, M.; Howze, J.; Dewey, W.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1967). "Localization of intracranial tumors. Comparative study with 131-I-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen and neohydrin-203Hg". Cancer 20 (5): 751–5. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(1967)20:5<751::aid-cncr2820200529>3.0.co;2-e. PMID 6024287. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Marrack, D.; Dewey, W. C.; McCardle, R. J.; Harper, P. V. (1967). "¹³¹I-labeled antibodies to human fibrinogen. Diagnostic studies and therapeutic trials". Cancer 20 (5): 865–70. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(1967)20:5<865::aid-cncr2820200546>3.0.co;2-5. PMID 6024295. 
• Izzo, J. L.; Bartlett, J. W.; Roncone, A.; Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1967). "Physiological processes and dynamics in the disposition of small and large doses of biologically active and inactive ¹³¹I-insulins in the rat". J. Biol. Chem. 242 (10): 2343–55. PMID 6026231. 
• Helmkamp, R. W.; Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F. (1967). "I-131-labeling of proteins by the iodine monochloride method". Int J Appl Radiat Isot 18 (11): 737–46. doi:10.1016/0020-708x(67)90011-7. PMID 4168148. 
• Helmkamp, R. W.; Contrera, de los Angeles; Bale, W. F. (1966). "A procedure for the determination of total iodine in radioactive iodide preparations of high specific activity". J. Nucl. Med. 7 (7): 491–500. PMID 4161792. 
• McCardle, R. J.; Harper, P. V.; Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Andros, G.; Jiminez, F. (1966). "Studies with iodine-131-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen for diagnosis and therapy of tumors". J. Nucl. Med. 7 (11): 837–47. PMID 5955363. 
• Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Davis, T. P.; Izzo, M. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Contreras, M. A.; Spar, I. L. (1966). "High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131 by the iodine monochloride method". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 122 (2): 407–14. doi:10.3181/00379727-122-31148. PMID 4167117. 
• I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, M. J. Izzo, (1964) PREPARATION OF PURIFIED I-131-LABELED ANTIBODY WHICH REACTS WITH HUMAN FIBRIN. PRELIMINARY TRACER STUDIES ON TUMOR PATIENTS, Cancer Res., 24(), 286-93
• J. L. Izzo, W. F. Bale, M. J. Izzo, A. Roncone, (1964) HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH I-131. UR-637 UR Rep, 86(), 1-22
• R. W. Helmkamp, M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, THE DETERMINATION OF TOTAL IODINE IN I-131-IODIDE PREPARATIONS OF HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY. UR Rep UR-644, 1964; 45: 1-32
• Izzo, J. L.; Bale, W. F.; Izzo, M. J.; Roncone, A. (1964). "HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH ¹³¹I". J. Biol. Chem. 239: 3743–8. PMID 14257601. 
• Izzo, J. L.; Roncone, A.; Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1964). "Relationship Between Degree of Iodination of Insulin and ITS Biological, Electrophoretic, and Immunochemical Properties". J. Biol. Chem. 239: 3749–54. PMID 14257602. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L.; di Chiro, G. (1963). "Preparation of purified I-131 labeled antisera to human fibrinogen. Preliminary studies in tumor patients". Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum 19: 197–200. PMID 13978519. 
• Dewey, W. C.; Bale, W. F.; Rose, R. G.; Marrack, D. (1963). "Localization of antifibrin antibodies in human tumors". Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum 19: 185–96. PMID 14027435. 
• Dichiro, G.; Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Laskowski, E. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Matthews, W. B. (1963). "'RIAF' — Radio-Iodinated Anti-Fibrinogen Encephalography". Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockholm) 1 (3): 967–71. doi:10.1177/028418516300100354. PMID 14044734. 
• Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Davis, T. P.; Izzo, M. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Spar, I. L. (1962). "High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131". UR Rep 604: 37. PMID 24546533. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1962). "Research directed toward the use of I-131 labeled fibrinogen and antibody to fibrin in the localization and treatment of tumors". UR Rep 612: 61. PMID 24546816. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1960). "Experimental radiation therapy of tumors with I-131-carrying antibodies to fibrin". Cancer Res. 20: 1488–94. PMID 13686301. 
• Helmkamp, R. W.; Goodland, R. L.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Mutschler, L. E. (1960). "High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride". Cancer Res. 20: 1495–1500. PMID 13713200. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1960). "Experimental radiation therapy of tumors using I-131 carrying antibodies to fibrin". ORINS Rep US at Energy Comm 567: 1–25. PMID 15445667. 
• Helmkamp, R. W.; Goodland, R. L.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Mutschler, L. E. (1960). "High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride". ORINS Rep US at Energy Comm 568: 1–18. PMID 15445692. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L.; Casarett, G. W.; Michaelson, S. M. (1960). "Distribution of injected I-131 labeled antibody to dog fibrin in tumor-bearing dogs". UR Rep 569: 1–13. PMID 24546277. 

1950s

• Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L.; Bale, W. F. (1959). "Localization of I131 labeled antibody of rat fibrin in transplantable rat lymphosarcoma". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 100 (2): 259–62. doi:10.3181/00379727-100-24592. PMID 13634104. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L. (1959). "In-vivo localization studies of I-131 labeled anti-Murphy-Sturm lymphosarcoma antibodies". Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum 15: 980–5. PMID 13833155. 
• Tuttle, L. W.; Baxter, R. C.; Goldman, M.; Bale, W. F. (1959). "The metabolism and toxicology of strontium-90 in the rat. Rationale, experimental procedures, pilot experiments". UR Rep 424: 1–26. PMID 24546306. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1958). "In-vivo purification of I-131 labeled antirat lymphosarcoma antibody". J. Immunol. 80 (6): 482–94. PMID 13549736. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L. (1957). "Use of urea and salicylate to elute antibody from insoluble antigen". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 94 (4): 803–7. doi:10.3181/00379727-94-23094. PMID 13431963. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1957). "Studies directed toward the use of antibodies as carriers of radioactivity for therapy". Adv Biol Med Phys. Advances in Biological and Medical Physics 5: 285–356. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4832-3111-2.50011-0. ISBN 9781483231112. PMID 13520434. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Wolfe, D. E.; Goodland, R. L. (1956). "Organ specificity of I-131 labeled rabbit kidney eluates in rats and rabbits". J. Immunol. 76 (2): 119–29. PMID 13295599. 
• BALE, W. F. and SHAPIRO, J. V. Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products. Proc. UN International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, (August 1955), Vol 13. United Nations, New York, 1956, 233-236.
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L.; Wolfe, D. E. (1955). "In-vivo and in-vitro studies of labeled antibodies against rat kidney and Walker carcinoma". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 89 (4): 564–8. doi:10.3181/00379727-89-21876. PMID 13254826. 
• Whipple, G. H.; Robscheit-Robbins, F. S.; Bale, W. F. (1955). "Red cell stroma protein rich in vitamin B12 during active regeneration; anemia studies using radioactive cobalt B12 in dogs". J. Exp. Med. 102 (6): 725–31. doi:10.1084/jem.102.6.725. PMID 13271685. 
• Miller, L. L.; Bale, W. F. (1954). "The metabolic conversion of the carbon chain of lysine-6-C14 to glutamic acid, aspartic acid and arginine". Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 48 (2): 361–9. doi:10.1016/0003-9861(54)90351-3. PMID 13125611. 
• Miller, L. L.; Bale, W. F. (1954). "Synthesis of all plasma protein fractions except gamma globulins by the liver; the use of zone electrophoresis and lysine-epsilon-C14 to define the plasma proteins synthesized by the isolated perfused liver". J. Exp. Med. 99 (2): 125–32. doi:10.1084/jem.99.2.125. PMID 13130789. 
• Miller, L. L.; Bly, C. G.; Bale, W. F. (1954). "Plasma and tissue proteins produced by non-hepatic rat organs as studied with lysine-epsilon-C14; gamma globulins the chief plasma protein fraction produced by non-hepatic tissues". J. Exp. Med. 99 (2): 133–53. doi:10.1084/jem.99.2.133. PMID 13130790. 
• Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1954). "In-vivo localization of rat organ antibodies in ovaries, adrenals, and other tissues". J. Immunol. 73 (3): 125–33. PMID 13201752. 
• Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F. (1954). "In-vivo localization of labeled rat adrenal antibodies". J. Immunol. 73 (3): 134–7. PMID 13201753. 
• Toporek, M.; Miller, L. L.; Bale, W. F. (1952). "Carbon atom 2 of L-histidine-2-C14, a source of the carbon of labile methyl groups in liver". J. Biol. Chem. 198 (2): 839–51. PMID 12999802. 
• Bale, W. F.; The (1951). "instruments and personnel". Radiology 56 (5): 656–60. doi:10.1148/56.5.656. PMID 14844675. 
• Miller, L. L.; Bly, C. G.; Watson, M. L.; Bale, W. F. (1951). "The dominant role of the liver in plasma protein synthesis; a direct study of the isolated perfused rat liver with the aid of lysine-epsilon-C14". J. Exp. Med. 94 (5): 431–53. doi:10.1084/jem.94.5.431. PMID 14888824. 

1940s

• Mann, W.; Bale, W. F. (1949). "The distribution in rabbit tissues of intravenously injected iodine as shown by the radioisotope I-130". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 95 (1): 12–7. PMID 18111474. 
• Miller, L. L.; Bale, W. F. (1949). "The use of radioactive lysine in studies of protein metabolism; synthesis and utilization of plasma proteins". J. Exp. Med. 90 (4): 297–313. doi:10.1084/jem.90.4.297. PMID 18140663. 
• Bale, W. F.; Yuile, C. L. (1949). "Hemoglobin labeled by radioactive lysine; erythrocyte life cycle". J. Exp. Med. 90 (4): 315–20. doi:10.1084/jem.90.4.315. PMID 18140664. 
• Bale, W. F. (1947). "Blood protein studies with labeled elements". Science 105 (2738): 632–7. doi:10.1126/science.105.2738.632. PMID 17820067. 
• Bale, W. F. (1947). "Health protection in the production and use of atomic energy". Dipl 19 (1): 23–7. PMID 20280923. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Whipple, G. H. (1946). "Effects of inflammation (turpentine abscess) on iron absorption". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 61 (4): 405. doi:10.3181/00379727-61-15334. PMID 20982511. 
• Bale, W. F. (1946). "Health protection in the production and use of atomic energy". Occup Med (Chicago, Illinois) 2: 1–7. 
• Bale, W. F. (1946). "Some prospective medical uses of atomic energy". J Am Pharm Assoc, Am Pharm Assoc (Baltimore) 7 (2): 81. doi:10.1016/s0095-9561(16)30913-6. PMID 21012565. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Miller, L. L.; Robscheit-Robbins, F. S.; Bale, W. F.; Whipple, G. H. (1944). "Peritoneal Absorption". J. Exp. Med. 80 (2): 77–82. doi:10.1084/jem.80.2.77. PMID 19871404. 
• Fink, R. M.; Enns, T.; Kimball, C. P.; Silberstein, H. E.; Bale, W. F.; Madden, S. C.; Whipple, G. H. (1944). "Plasma Protein Metabolism—Normal and Associated with Shock". J. Exp. Med. 80 (6): 455–75. doi:10.1084/jem.80.6.455. PMID 19871430. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Ross, J. F.; Balfour, W. M.; Whipple, G. H. (1943). "Radioactive Iron Absorption by Gastro-Intestinal Tract". J. Exp. Med. 78 (3): 169–88. doi:10.1084/jem.78.3.169. PMID 19871320. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Ross, J. F.; Bale, W. F.; Balfour, W. M.; Whipple, G. H. (1942). "Red Cell and Plasma Volumes (Circulating and Total) as Determined by Radio Iron and by Dye". J. Exp. Med. 75 (2): 221–32. doi:10.1084/jem.75.2.221. PMID 19871178. 
• Balfour, W. M.; Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Pommerenke, W. T.; Whipple, G. H. (1942). "Radioactive Iron Absorption in Clinical Conditions: Normal, Pregnancy, Anemia, and Hemochromatosis". J. Exp. Med. 76 (1): 15–30. doi:10.1084/jem.76.1.15. PMID 19871218. 
• Yoshikawa, H.; Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F. (1942). "Red Cell and Plasma Radioactive Copper in Normal and Anemic Dogs". J. Exp. Med. 75 (5): 489–94. doi:10.1084/jem.75.5.489. PMID 19871200. 
• Fenn, W. O.; Bale, W. F.; Mullins, L. J. (1942). "The Radioactivity of Potassium from Human Sources". J. Gen. Physiol. 25 (3): 345–53. doi:10.1085/jgp.25.3.345. PMID 19873278. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Balfour, W. M.; Ross, J. F.; Bale, W. F.; Whipple, G. H. (1941). "Red Cell Volume Circulating and Total as Determined by Radio Iron". Science 93 (2404): 87–8. doi:10.1126/science.93.2404.87. PMID 17729638. Bibcode: 1941Sci....93...87H. 
• Kaltreider, N. L.; Meneely, G. R.; Allen, J. R.; Bale, W. F. (1941). "Determination of the Volume of the Extracellular Fluid of the Body with Radioactive Sodium". J. Exp. Med. 74 (6): 569–90. doi:10.1084/jem.74.6.569. PMID 19871156. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Ross, J. F.; Hettig, R. A.; Whipple, G. H. (1940). "Radio-Iron in Plasma Does Not Exchange with Hemoglobin Iron in Red Cells". Science 92 (2380): 131–2. doi:10.1126/science.92.2380.131. PMID 17730218. Bibcode: 1940Sci....92..131H. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Ross, J. F.; Bale, W. F.; Whipple, G. H. (1940). "The Utilization of Iron and the Rapidity of Hemoglobin Formation in Anemia Due to Blood Loss". J. Exp. Med. 71 (6): 731–6. doi:10.1084/jem.71.6.731. PMID 19870994. 

1930s

• Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Lawrence, E. O.; Whipple, G. H. (1939). "Radioactive Iron and ITS Metabolism in Anemia". J. Exp. Med. 69 (5): 739–53. doi:10.1084/jem.69.5.739. PMID 19870874. 
• Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Hettig, R. A.; Kamen, M. D.; Whipple, G. H. (1939). "Radioactive Iron and ITS Excretion in Urine, Bile, and Feces". J. Exp. Med. 70 (5): 443–51. doi:10.1084/jem.70.5.443. PMID 19870921. 
• Bale, W. F. (1947). "Clinical methods and their limitations; practical problems and hazards in the application of labelled compounds to clinical investigation". Trans Conf Metab Asp Conval 60: 71–79. PMID 18908508. 
• Bale, W. F.. "Determination of hard radiation, including preparation of samples". U S Navy Medical Bulletin 48: 100–103. PMID 18859233.