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Araújo, R.G.;  Alcantar-Rivera, B.;  Meléndez-Sánchez, E.R.;  Martínez-Prado, M.A.;  Sosa-Hernández, J.E.;  Iqbal, H.M.N.;  Parra-Saldivar, R.;  Martínez-Ruiz, M. UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/26639 (accessed on 18 May 2024).
Araújo RG,  Alcantar-Rivera B,  Meléndez-Sánchez ER,  Martínez-Prado MA,  Sosa-Hernández JE,  Iqbal HMN, et al. UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/26639. Accessed May 18, 2024.
Araújo, Rafael G., Brian Alcantar-Rivera, Edgar Ricardo Meléndez-Sánchez, María Adriana Martínez-Prado, Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernández, Hafiz M. N. Iqbal, Roberto Parra-Saldivar, Manuel Martínez-Ruiz. "UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/26639 (accessed May 18, 2024).
Araújo, R.G.,  Alcantar-Rivera, B.,  Meléndez-Sánchez, E.R.,  Martínez-Prado, M.A.,  Sosa-Hernández, J.E.,  Iqbal, H.M.N.,  Parra-Saldivar, R., & Martínez-Ruiz, M. (2022, August 29). UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/26639
Araújo, Rafael G., et al. "UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae." Encyclopedia. Web. 29 August, 2022.
UV and UV-vis Irradiation on Microalgae and Macroalgae
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules27165334

Bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, and Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) derived from microalgae may play a vital role in the bio and non-bio sectors. Currently, commercial sunscreens contain chemicals such as oxybenzone and octinoxate, which have harmful effects on the environment and human health; while microalgae-based sunscreens emerge as an eco-friendly alternative to provide photo protector agents against solar radiation. Algae-based exploration ranges from staple foods to pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biomedical applications.

microalgae macroalgae cosmetology photoprotectans UV radiation

1. Introduction

Healthy coral reefs are one of the most valuable ecosystems on earth as they provide food and coastal protection; however, some chemicals or active ingredients within sunscreens can cause permanent damage to coral reefs [1]. The most known harmful chemical compounds are oxybenzone and octinoxate; nonetheless, other chemicals included in commercial sunscreens are benzophenone-1, benzophenone-8, OD-PABA, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-benzylidene camphor, nano-titanium dioxide, and nano-zinc oxide [2][3][4]. Cosmetic ingredients are highly regulated to assure safety and efficiency standards, besides the fact that not allowed compounds may be present in a cosmetic at trace levels due to processing conditions, the prevalence of synthetic ingredients over naturals is related to the fact that the final composition of a commercial cosmetic must satisfy the corresponding legislation [5]. It is common practice that a synthetic compound may be chosen over a natural source due to the stability of the molecule of interest. However, a natural form of astaxanthin (a microalgal pigment of current interest) may compete against the synthetic molecule, not only due to its safety and reduced environmental stress but also due to the higher antioxidant activity related to the esterified form in comparison to synthetic astaxanthin. Related to this condition high-value bioactive molecules from microalgae such as astaxanthin are being explored for pharmaceutical and cosmetic products [6][7][8]. The formulation of sunscreens based on microalgae may have the necessary protection but need proper carriers due to the solubility of MAAs; they are not suitable for being on the skin for a long period. It has been reported that the use of microalgae extracts is beneficial for the ecosystem and human beings. Such extracts are useful in the formulation of skin care products offering daily sun protection that oils in other formulations do not have. However, there is a need to improve the formulation to carry, deliver, and extend the retention period on the skin [9][10].

2. UV Protective Metabolites

2.1. Mycosporine-like Amino Acids

MAA are found naturally in seaweed, and a high MAA content has been shown in red algae and brown algae. The structure of MAAs includes cyclohexanediones or cyclohexene aldehydes in the active site that are linked to another active group through the phenol hydroxyl. MAAs are hypothesized to absorb light at a wavelength of 320 to 360 nm; therefore, MAAs exhibit a strong ultraviolet absorption capacity. In this research, MAA from Porphyra haitanensis was extracted, separated, and purified and the mechanisms responsible for its cutaneous anti-photoaging effect and as explored by using a mouse cutaneous photoaging model. These experiments, involving local treatments and washes administered with various doses of MAA, were effective against skin photoaging, and metalloproteinases (MMPs) content and expression were detected in skin tissue homogenates, combined with the pathological analysis of the anti-photoaging activity and underlying mechanisms of MAAs. The anti-photoaging activity and underlying mechanisms of MAAs were analyzed. Scytonemin is another UVA-, UVB-, and UVC-filtering compound; this is a highly stable, yellowish-brown, lipid-soluble, inducible pigment. Scytonemin is found exclusively in the polysaccharide sheath of some cyanobacteria as a protective mechanism. During periods of desiccation, scytonemin becomes more important as a UV protector due to the inactivation of other detection mechanisms. Its UV protection properties mean scytonemin is a powerful sunscreen material [11][12]. Exposure of Chlamydomonas nivalis to ultraviolet light induced the production of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. The tolerance to UV rays of the snow algae C. nivalis and the ability to produce under this radiation phenolic compounds, free proline, and antioxidant protection factors in response to UV-A and UV-C light generates a great potential for biotechnological and pharmaceutical application [13][14].

2.2. Carotenoids

Carotenoids are known as fat-soluble plant pigments widely distributed in nature that provide various colors such as yellow, red, and orange to fruits and vegetables. They are synthesized mainly by plants and algae, as well as by fungi and bacteria. Carotenoids can be found throughout the animal kingdom and in humans due to selective absorption throughout the food chain [15]. These lipophilic molecules are based on the chemical structure classified as carotenes and xanthophylls, and both classes have a common C40 polyisoprenoid structure containing a series of centrally located conjugated double bonds that act as a light-absorbing chromophore. Carotenoids that exist as pure nonpolar hydrocarbons are called carotenoids (α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene); on the contrary, xanthophylls (β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and astaxanthin) are more polar carotenoids that contain oxygen as a functional group in their structure, either as a hydroxyl group or a keto group as a terminal group [16]. So far, more than 800 carotenoids have been identified, but only several are found in the human body, including α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein, and lycopene, as well as zeaxanthin and α- and β-cryptoxanthin. People are constantly exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, some less, some more, depending on where they live, their activities, what they do for a living, hobbies, culture, but also their understanding of the importance of sun protection and its implementation. Exposure to solar ultraviolet light has been estimated to be 10% of the total available annual UVR for outdoor workers and 3% for adults working indoors [16][17]. It is crucial to keep in mind that sunlight stimulates blood circulation and bone health, since the exposure to some sunlight induces vitamin D production in the human body. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 5 to 15 minutes of sun exposure per week is enough to maintain healthy vitamin D levels in the body [18]. In fact, as the UV Index tends to be higher with closeness to the equator, sunlight exposure must be preferably less for countries nearby this area [19].

3. Biomedical Applications

Human skin is the largest organ in the integumentary system that covers the entire body surface. The skin is a complex organ consisting of three primary layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, which plays a protective role against environmental damage and is resistant to water. The epidermis has no blood vessels, and the main cells contain keratinocytes (content around 95%), melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans cells. The epidermis could be subdivided into three cell layers, the upper one being a superficial corneal layer, which is composed of flattened cells that contain the proteinaceous and resistant factors keratin [20]. Since the skin interacts directly with the environment, it is sensitive to stimuli and can even receive damage from chemical and physical substances, especially ultraviolet (UV) radiation [21]. Continuous radiation exposure often has many complications, including sunburn, hypopigmentation, and even skin cancer. However adequate levels of sunlight are necessary for correct human body function, besides the production of D vitamin and their repercussion on rickets and osteoporosis prevention. Diseases such as lupus vulgaris (skin tuberculosis) were successfully cured with UVB stimuli. Psoriasis, an autoimmune disease, can be treated with UVA radiation, and the same with vitiligo [18].

3.1. Algae against Acne

Bioactive compounds extracted from seaweed could be a natural and safe alternative. Macroalgae extracts have been reported to possess antibacterial properties and antifungal activities. Ruxton and Jenkins (2015) report a new algal zinc-oligosaccharide complex (SOZC) from the polysaccharide membrane of Laminaria digitata through a series of double-blind, placebo-clinical trials. The findings suggest that SOZC may relieve acne symptoms [22].

3.2. Algae Protect the Skin from Damage by UV Radiation

Photoaging caused by excessive exposure to sunlight has become a huge problem in recent years. Marine organisms, especially. The bioactive compounds of macroalgae can absorb UVA and UVB; some of them eliminate ROS and inhibit the formation of MMP. Various extracts from different algae exhibit photoprotective functions [23][24]. Compounds in those extracts that have confirmed photoprotective activity include shinorine, Porphyra-334, palythene, eckstolonol, eckol, Mycosporine-glycine, Mycosporine methylamine-serine, sargacromenol, fucoxanthin, tetraprenyltoluquinol chromane meroterpenoid, tetraprenyltoluquinol chromane meroterpenoid, and sargaquinoic acids [25]. The most efficient UV absorber compounds are MAA, which are water-soluble substances found in many organisms, such as cyanobacteria and algae. Porphyra-334 can downregulate intracellular UV-activated ROS and controls MMP expression by eliminating damaged HDF overdoses [26]. Therefore, the search for safe and effective skin whitening agents from seaweed can be beneficial for the cosmetic industry. To find new anti-browning and bleaching agents, scientists screened various seaweeds for tyrosinase inhibitors and found some potential algae. Several species of microalgae are exploited in the cosmetic industry, especially in the skincare market, the main ones being Arthrospira and Chlorella [27]. The phlorotannins, active ingredients of nutraceuticals, are the most abundant polyphenols found in brown marine algae; their health applications are due to antioxidant activity [28][29]. Polysaccharides have been shown to have several important properties. However, attempts to establish a relationship between polysaccharides’ structures and their bioactivities have been challenging due to the complexity of this type of polymer. The polysaccharides produced by algae are presented according to their group of macroalgae, phaeophytes, rhodophytes, and chlorophytes, which are relative to microalgae. However, there are always some similarities between the polysaccharides of each group of algae: fucoidans are often extracted from brown algal species, agaroides come from red macroalgae, and ulvans are obtained from green algae [30].

References

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  2. Chang, N.I.; Yoo, M.; Lee, S. Determination of fourteen sunscreen agents in cosmetics using high-performance liquid chromatography. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 2014, 37, 175–180.
  3. Subramaniam, V.D.; Prasad, S.V.; Banerjee, A.; Gopinath, M.; Murugesan, R.; Marotta, F.; Sun, X.-F.; Pathak, S. Health hazards of nanoparticles: Understanding the toxicity mechanism of nanosized ZnO in cosmetic products. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 2018, 42, 84–93.
  4. Smijs, T.; Pavel, S. Chapter 2.8—A Case Study: Nano-sized Titanium Dioxide in Sunscreens; Dolez, P.I.B.T.-N., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 375–423. ISBN 978-0-444-62747-6.
  5. Chisvert, A.; Salvador, A. Cosmetic ingredients: From the cosmetic to the human body and the environment. Anal. Methods 2013, 5, 309–310.
  6. Natural Algae Astaxanthin Association Natural, vs. Synthetic. Available online: https://www.astaxanthin.org/about/natural-vs-synthetic/ (accessed on 20 July 2022).
  7. Villaró, S.; Ciardi, M.; Morillas-España, A.; Sánchez-Zurano, A.; Acién-Fernández, G.; Lafarga, T. Microalgae Derived Astaxanthin: Research and Consumer Trends and Industrial Use as Food. Foods 2021, 10, 2303.
  8. Aoi, W.; Maoka, T.; Abe, R.; Fujishita, M.; Tominaga, K. Comparison of the effect of non-esterified and esterified astaxanthins on endurance performance in mice. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2018, 62, 161–166.
  9. Farahin, A.W.; Yusoff, F.M.; Basri, M.; Nagao, N.; Shariff, M. Use of microalgae: Tetraselmis tetrathele extract in formulation of nanoemulsions for cosmeceutical application. J. Appl. Phycol. 2019, 31, 1743–1752.
  10. Dianursanti; Prakasa, M.B.; Nugroho, P. The effect of adding microalgae extract Spirulina platensis containing flavonoid in the formation of Sunscreen towards cream stability and SPF values. AIP Conf. Proc. 2020, 2255, 040022.
  11. Fuentes-Tristan, S.; Parra-Saldivar, R.; Iqbal, H.M.N.; Carrillo-Nieves, D. Bioinspired Biomolecules: Mycosporine-like Amino Acids and Scytonemin from Lyngbya Sp with UV-Protection Potentialities. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2019, 201, 111684.
  12. Pathak, J.; Pandey, A.; Maurya, P.K.; Rajneesh, R.; Sinha, R.P.; Singh, S.P. Cyanobacterial Secondary Metabolite Scytonemin: A Potential Photoprotective and Pharmaceutical Compound. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India Sect. B Biol. Sci. 2020, 90, 467–481.
  13. Gorton, H.L.; Vogelmann, T.C. Ultraviolet Radiation and the Snow Alga Chlamydomonas nivalis (Bauer) Willey. Photochem. Photobiol. 2003, 77, 608–615.
  14. Duval, B.; Shetty, K.; Thomas, W.H. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties in the snow alga Chlamydomonas nivalis after exposure to UV light. J. Appl. Phycol. 1999, 11, 559.
  15. Maoka, T. Carotenoids as natural functional pigments. J. Nat. Med. 2020, 74, 1–16.
  16. Barreiro, C.; Barredo, J.-L. Carotenoids Production: A Healthy and Profitable Industry. In Methods in Molecular Biology; Humana Press Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 1852, pp. 45–55.
  17. Khoo, H.-E.; Prasad, N.; Kong, K.-W.; Jiang, Y.; Ismail, A. Carotenoids and Their Isomers: Color Pigments in Fruits and Vegetables. Molecules 2011, 16, 1710–1738.
  18. Radiation: The Known Health Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/radiation-the-known-health-effects-of-ultraviolet-radiation (accessed on 19 July 2022).
  19. UV INDEX. Available online: https://neo.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=AURA_UVI_CLIM_M (accessed on 17 May 2022).
  20. Juturu, V.; Bowman, J.P.; Deshpande, J. Overall skin tone and skin-lightening-improving effects with oral supplementation of lutein and zeaxanthin isomers: A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 2016, 9, 325–332.
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  23. Vega, J.; Schneider, G.; Moreira, B.R.; Herrera, C.; Bonomi-Barufi, J.; Figueroa, F.L. Mycosporine-like Amino Acids from Red Macroalgae: Uv-Photoprotectors with Potential Cosmeceutical Applications. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5112.
  24. Pangestuti, R.; Shin, K.H.; Kim, S.K. Anti-Photoaging and Potential Skin Health Benefits of Seaweeds. Marine Drugs 2021, 19, 172.
  25. Balboa, E.; Li, Y.-X.; Ahn, B.-N.; Eom, S.-H.; Domínguez, H.; Jiménez, C.; Rodríguez, J. Photodamage attenuation effect by a tetraprenyltoluquinol chromane meroterpenoid isolated from Sargassum muticum. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2015, 148, 51–58.
  26. Velatooru, L.R.; Baggu, C.B.; Janapala, V.R. Spatane Diterpinoid from the Brown Algae, Stoechospermum Marginatum Induces Apoptosis via ROS Induced Mitochondrial Mediated Caspase Dependent Pathway in Murine B16F10 Melanoma Cells. Mol. Carcinog. 2016, 55, 2222–2235.
  27. Daniel, S.; Cornelia, S.; Fred, Z. UV-A sunscreen from red algae for protection against 21 premature skin aging. Cosmet Toilet. Manuf. Worldw. 2004, 2004, 139–143.
  28. Venkatesan, J.; Keekan, K.K.; Anil, S.; Bhatnagar, I.; Kim, S.K. Phlorotannins. Encycl. Food Chem. 2019, 2019, 515–527.
  29. Leyton, A.; Pezoa-Conte, R.; Barriga, A.; Buschmann, A.; Mäki-Arvela, P.; Mikkola, J.-P.; Lienqueo, M. Identification and efficient extraction method of phlorotannins from the brown seaweed Macrocystis pyrifera using an orthogonal experimental design. Algal Res. 2016, 16, 201–208.
  30. Wang, S.-H.; Huang, C.-Y.; Chen, C.-Y.; Chang, C.-C.; Huang, C.-Y.; Dong, C.-D.; Chang, J.-S. Structure and Biological Activity Analysis of Fucoidan Isolated from Sargassum siliquosum. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 32447–32455.
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Subjects: Materials Science, Biomaterials
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Rafael G. Araújo
,
Brian Alcantar-Rivera
,
Edgar Ricardo Meléndez-Sánchez
,
María Adriana Martínez-Prado
,
Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernández
,
Hafiz M. N. Iqbal
,
Roberto Parra-Saldivar
,
Manuel Martínez-Ruiz
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Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 30 Aug 2022
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