Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Keyu Chen
 -- 1485 2022-07-23 06:35:28 |
2 format correct
Catherine Yang
 Meta information modification 1485 2022-07-27 05:48:10 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Chen, K.;  Feng, C. Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25456 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
Chen K,  Feng C. Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25456. Accessed November 16, 2024.
Chen, Keyu, Chao Feng. "Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25456 (accessed November 16, 2024).
Chen, K., & Feng, C. (2022, July 23). Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25456
Chen, Keyu and Chao Feng. "Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty." Encyclopedia. Web. 23 July, 2022.
Linking Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijerph19148254

Affordable and warm housing is a basic household living need, which is closely related to human health and well-being. Households are more likely to be exposed to energy poverty if they live in larger, older, poorly insulated houses, without basic energy service equipment, and in rental housing. The area of residence and energy installations are the main characteristics that distinguish energy poverty from non-energy poverty. The link between housing conditions and energy poverty is reinforced by the psychology and behavior of households, with those living in poor conditions tending to restrain their energy consumption, thus worsening their energy poverty situation.

housing conditions energy poverty energy restriction

1. Introduction

Energy is a basic human need that is closely linked to human health and well-being. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) incorporate energy targets, proposing the goal of ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all [1]. However, for a variety of reasons, many households are facing energy poverty through under-use and over-burdened energy. As reported, about 759 million people worldwide lack access to electricity in 2019. By the end of 2020, more than 25 million people in developing countries in Asia and Africa could lose the ability to afford a basic package of electricity services [2]. Additionally, the European Commission reports that more than 34 million people in the EU experience energy poverty to various degrees [3]. Addressing energy poverty is a global public policy challenge due to the complexity, diversity and invisibility of its manifestations, and the damage it can do to human well-being and physical and mental health.
The earliest research on energy poverty dates back to the 1980s, when Bradshaw and Hutton (1983) described it as the inability to obtain adequate warmth in the home and proposed three policies to alleviate energy poverty by increasing income to cover energy costs [4]. Subsequently, Boardman (1991) described energy-poor households from the perspective of energy expenditure as ‘disproportionate expenditure’, with households identified as energy-poor if they spent more than 10% of their income on access to energy services [5]. Since then, more research has been carried out on the definition [6][7][8], influencing factors [9][10] and consequences [11][12] of energy poverty.
As housing and energy are closely linked, the housing factor becomes an important perspective in examining energy poverty. Decent, warm, comfortable homes require basic energy services, including space heating and cooling, lighting, water heating, cooking and electricity [13]. On the one hand, the necessary energy needs of a household are highly correlated with the housing characteristics, such as the energy efficiency [14][15][16], building envelope [17][18] and thermal insulation [19][20]. In general, inefficient energy systems [21] and insulation can increase the energy costs of a household to some extent. When households cannot afford high energy costs, they choose to reduce their energy consumption. When household energy consumption falls below the amount of energy required to maintain basic decent living conditions, energy poverty occurs. On the other hand, when housing costs account for a high share of household income, this affects the ability of households to pay their energy bills and households are forced to reduce their energy expenditure, resulting in a situation of the under-consumption of energy [22]. Furthermore, conversely, unfavorable housing conditions and poor housing quality are often associated with energy poverty, for example, energy-poor households may often experience damp houses and mold on the walls and floors [23].
In China, as urbanization continues, more and more residents are beginning to cluster in cities and some low-income households are facing housing affordability and energy affordability challenges. In urban areas, some older neighborhoods have poor energy infrastructure (e.g., electricity, gas and heating) and also suffer from inefficient buildings, increasing the risk of household energy poverty. In rural areas, a large number of houses are detached and poorly insulated, making it difficult for some households to maintain comfortable thermal conditions in their homes. At the same time, due to low income and poor basic energy facilities, some households have difficulty accessing modern energy services and rely heavily on inefficient traditional energy sources. Since housing and energy issues are related to the standard of living, health and well-being of occupants, both housing and energy poverty are pressing livelihood issues to be addressed.

2. Link between Housing Conditions and Energy Poverty

Initial research on energy poverty focused on the definition and measurement of energy poverty [5][6][7][8] and this has been extensively researched and debated [24][25][26]. Subsequent studies have broadened the scope of energy poverty research and started to focus on the drivers [9][10] and the consequences [11][12][27][28][29] of energy poverty. Due to the strong link between housing and energy, a number of studies have discussed the relationship between housing stock characteristics and energy poverty.
The energy efficiency of housing is considered as an important influence on energy poverty. Hills [6] identifies fuel prices, low income and energy efficiency as the three main drivers of energy poverty. The energy performance of a building affects a household’s energy demand and is a contributor to energy poverty [30]. In general, households whose dwellings are less energy efficient are at greater risk of exposure to energy poverty and are likely to face more severe energy poverty [14][15][16][31][32]. A study carried out in the UK suggests that wealthier middle-income households may fall into energy poverty as a result of living in relatively inefficient homes [33]. Housing energy efficiency is highly correlated with indoor thermal conditions, with low-energy performance dwellings generally having lower indoor temperatures [20][34]. A study of energy poverty in low-income households showed that residential energy efficiency can cause large differences in heating costs and increase the energy burden of inefficient households [35].
Housing insulation is an important component of residential energy efficiency. There is a significant relationship between housing insulation and energy poverty [17][18]. The installation of double glazing and insulated roofs indicate a more insulated home. Studies have shown that improving housing insulation is effective in improving the indoor environment of homes, reducing condensation, mold and dampness problems [36], as well as improving the thermal comfort of homes [19][20].
Another condition associated with residential energy efficiency is the age of the dwelling. Older homes are often associated with conditions such as poor insulation and outdated energy systems [10], which together lead to energy poverty in households. Older dwellings tend to have higher heat loss [20] and poorer thermal regulation [9]. Households may be at higher energy risk if they live in older homes [9][18][23][30][37][38]. Furthermore, in terms of energy costs, households may pay higher energy bills for normal energy use because of their older homes [33], resulting in high energy costs as a proportion of income.
In addition to the energy efficiency attributes of housing, the other physical attributes (size and type) of housing may also be correlated with energy poverty. The link between house size and energy poverty may be based on energy bills [39][40], with larger homes being colder than smaller ones [20] and households being burdened with heavier energy costs in order to keep rooms warm, increasing the risk of household energy vulnerability exposure [10][33]. However, some studies have also reported the opposite result, with households living in small spaces being more vulnerable to energy instability [21][41], while households with larger homes are less vulnerable to energy poverty [42]. In addition, some studies have discussed the characteristics of house types of energy-poor households, and it is found that households living in detached, semi-detached dwellings are more likely to be exposed to energy poverty [37][43][44], which may be associated with higher levels of heat loss [45]. Additionally, the area of residence may also influence energy poverty [46][47].
Energy-poor households can also be affected by the energy system and energy installations in their homes. The installation of a heating system in a home can be effective in improving the indoor environment, enhancing the comfort of the home and alleviating energy poverty [18][36]. Efficient heating systems can reduce household energy costs and reduce the risk of energy poverty in households [18][21][48]. In addition, the household’s energy equipment and type of energy source are also important factors influencing energy poverty [9][33].
In terms of the economic attributes of housing, housing tenure is regarded as a driver of energy poverty [10][47]. It has been shown that energy-poor households are predominantly renters [9][41], and living in rented housing increases the risk of energy poverty compared to owner-occupied dwellings [21][37][48][49]. One possible explanation is that rented housing suffers from low energy inefficiency. There are insufficient incentives for landlords to retrofit their homes for energy efficiency, while tenants have limited rights and insufficient incentives [50] to implement effective energy efficiency improvements and retrofitting measures in their homes. Rental housing therefore has more serious energy efficiency problems [51]. On the other hand, renting is a manifestation of lower household income [52] and, in order to limit expenditure, choosing low-cost housing is a necessity, which may result in more energy consumption due to the poor thermal performance of the housing [53]. Low income and high energy consumption therefore make renting households more vulnerable to energy poverty. Furthermore, from an income distribution perspective, when housing costs account for a large proportion of household income, households are constrained in the amount of money they can spend on energy consumption and therefore fall into energy instability [42].

References

  1. UN. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; UN: New York, NY, USA, 2015.
  2. IEA; IRENA; UNSD; World Bank; WHO. Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report; World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2021.
  3. EC. What Is Energy Poverty? European Commission. Available online: https://energy-poverty.ec.europa.eu/energy-poverty-observatory/what-energy-poverty_en (accessed on 20 March 2022).
  4. Bradshaw, J.; Hutton, S. Social policy options and fuel poverty. J. Econ. Psychol. 1983, 3, 249–266.
  5. Boardman, B. Fuel Poverty: From Cold Homes to Affordable Warmth; Belhaven Press: London, UK, 1991.
  6. Hills, J. Fuel Poverty: The Problem and Its Measurement; Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion: London, UK, 2011.
  7. Alkire, S.; Foster, J. Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement. J. Public Econ. 2011, 95, 476–487.
  8. Thema, J.; Vondung, F. EPOV Indicator Dashboard: Methodology Guidebook; Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie GmbH: Wuppertal, Germany, 2020.
  9. Legendre, B.; Ricci, O. Measuring fuel poverty in France: Which households are the most fuel vulnerable? Energy Econ. 2015, 49, 620–628.
  10. Burlinson, A.; Giulietti, M.; Battisti, G. The elephant in the energy room: Establishing the nexus between housing poverty and fuel poverty. Energy Econ. 2018, 72, 135–144.
  11. Thomson, H.; Snell, C.; Bouzarovski, S. Health, Well-Being and Energy Poverty in Europe: A Comparative Study of 32 European Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 584.
  12. Thomson, H.; Simcock, N.; Bouzarovski, S.; Petrova, S. Energy poverty and indoor cooling: An overlooked issue in Europe. Energy Build. 2019, 196, 21–29.
  13. Practical Action. Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2010; Practical Action: Rugby, UK, 2010.
  14. Morrison, C.; Shortt, N. Fuel poverty in Scotland: Refining spatial resolution in the Scottish Fuel Poverty Indicator using a GIS-based multiple risk index. Health Place 2008, 14, 702–717.
  15. Charlier, D.; Legendre, B.; Risch, A. Fuel poverty in residential housing: Providing financial support versus combatting substandard housing. Appl. Econ. 2019, 51, 5369–5387.
  16. Seebauer, S.; Friesenecker, M.; Eisfeld, K. Integrating climate and social housing policy to alleviate energy poverty: An analysis of targets and instruments in Austria. Energy Sources Part B 2019, 14, 304–326.
  17. Sánchez, C.S.-G.; González, F.J.N.; Aja, A.H. Energy poverty methodology based on minimal thermal habitability conditions for low income housing in Spain. Energy Build. 2018, 169, 127–140.
  18. Burholt, V.; Windle, G. Keeping warm? Self-reported housing and home energy efficiency factors impacting on older people heating homes in North Wales. Energy Policy 2006, 34, 1198–1208.
  19. Hong, S.H.; Gilbertson, J.; Oreszczyn, T.; Green, G.; Ridley, I. A field study of thermal comfort in low-income dwellings in England before and after energy efficient refurbishment. Build. Environ. 2009, 44, 1228–1236.
  20. Hamilton, I.G.; O’Sullivan, A.; Huebner, G.; Oreszczyn, T.; Shipworth, D.; Summerfield, A.; Davies, M. Old and cold? Findings on the determinants of indoor temperatures in English dwellings during cold conditions. Energy Build. 2017, 141, 142–157.
  21. Belaïd, F. Exposure and risk to fuel poverty in France: Examining the extent of the fuel precariousness and its salient determinants. Energy Policy 2018, 114, 189–200.
  22. Eisfeld, K.; Seebauer, S. The energy austerity pitfall: Linking hidden energy poverty with self-restriction in household use in Austria. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2022, 84, 102427.
  23. Healy, J.D.; Clinch, J.P. Quantifying the severity of fuel poverty, its relationship with poor housing and reasons for non-investment in energy-saving measures in Ireland. Energy Policy 2004, 32, 207–220.
  24. Moore, R. Definitions of fuel poverty: Implications for policy. Energy Policy 2012, 49, 19–26.
  25. Bouzarovski, S.; Petrova, S. A global perspective on domestic energy deprivation: Overcoming the energy poverty—Fuel poverty binary. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2015, 10, 31–40.
  26. Thomson, H.; Bouzarovski, S.; Snell, C. Rethinking the measurement of energy poverty in Europe: A critical analysis of indicators and data. Indoor Built Environ. 2017, 26, 879–901.
  27. Kanagawa, M.; Nakata, T. Assessment of access to electricity and the socio-economic impacts in rural areas of developing countries. Energy Policy 2008, 36, 2016–2029.
  28. Churchill, S.A.; Smyth, R. Energy poverty and health: Panel data evidence from Australia. Energy Econ. 2021, 97, 105219.
  29. Banerjee, R.; Mishra, V.; Maruta, A.A. Energy poverty, health and education outcomes: Evidence from the developing world. Energy Econ. 2021, 101, 105447.
  30. Fabbri, K. Building and fuel poverty, an index to measure fuel poverty: An Italian case study. Energy 2015, 89, 244–258.
  31. Primc, K.; Slabe-Erker, R.; Majcen, B. Constructing energy poverty profiles for an effective energy policy. Energy Policy 2019, 128, 727–734.
  32. Drescher, K.; Janzen, B. Determinants, persistence, and dynamics of energy poverty: An empirical assessment using German household survey data. Energy Econ. 2021, 102, 105433.
  33. Walker, R.; McKenzie, P.; Liddell, C.; Morris, C. Estimating fuel poverty at household level: An integrated approach. Energy Build. 2014, 80, 469–479.
  34. Kolokotsa, D.; Santamouris, M. Review of the indoor environmental quality and energy consumption studies for low income households in Europe. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 536, 316–330.
  35. Brunner, K.-M.; Spitzer, M.; Christanell, A. Experiencing fuel poverty. Coping strategies of low-income households in Vienna/Austria. Energy Policy 2012, 49, 53–59.
  36. Shortt, N.; Rugkasa, J. “The walls were so damp and cold” fuel poverty and ill health in Northern Ireland: Results from a housing intervention. Health Place 2007, 13, 99–110.
  37. Riva, M.; Makasi, S.K.; Dufresne, P.; O’Sullivan, K.; Toth, M. Energy poverty in Canada: Prevalence, social and spatial distribution, and implications for research and policy. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2021, 81, 102237.
  38. Barrella, R.; Romero, J.C.; Linares, J.I.; Arenas, E.; Asín, M.; Centeno, E. The dark side of energy poverty: Who is underconsuming in Spain and why? Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2022, 86, 102428.
  39. Sánchez-Guevara, C.; Fernández, A.S.; Aja, A.H. Income, energy expenditure and housing in Madrid: Retrofitting policy implications. Build. Res. Inf. 2014, 43, 737–749.
  40. Sharma, S.V.; Han, P.; Sharma, V.K. Socio-economic determinants of energy poverty amongst Indian households: A case study of Mumbai. Energy Policy 2019, 132, 1184–1190.
  41. Scarpellini, S.; Rivera-Torres, P.; Suárez-Perales, I.; Aranda-Usón, A. Analysis of energy poverty intensity from the perspective of the regional administration: Empirical evidence from households in southern Europe. Energy Policy 2015, 86, 729–738.
  42. Abbas, K.; Li, S.; Xu, D.; Baz, K.; Rakhmetova, A. Do socioeconomic factors determine household multidimensional energy poverty? Empirical evidence from South Asia. Energy Policy 2020, 146, 111754.
  43. Karpinska, L.; Śmiech, S. Conceptualising housing costs: The hidden face of energy poverty in Poland. Energy Policy 2020, 147, 111819.
  44. Karpinska, L.; Śmiech, S. Invisible energy poverty? Analysing housing costs in Central and Eastern Europe. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2020, 70, 101670.
  45. Leahy, E.; Lyons, S. Energy use and appliance ownership in Ireland. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 4265–4279.
  46. Thomson, H.; Snell, C. Quantifying the prevalence of fuel poverty across the European Union. Energy Policy 2013, 52, 563–572.
  47. Dalla Longa, F.; Sweerts, B.; van der Zwaan, B. Exploring the complex origins of energy poverty in The Netherlands with machine learning. Energy Policy 2021, 156, 112373.
  48. Gómez-Navarro, T.; Calero-Pastor, M.; Pellicer-Sifres, V.; Lillo-Rodrigo, P.; Alfonso-Solar, D.; Pérez-Navarro, Á. Fuel poverty map of Valencia (Spain): Results of a direct survey to citizens and recommendations for policy making. Energy Policy 2021, 151, 112162.
  49. O’Sullivan, K.C.; Howden-Chapman, P.; Sim, D.; Stanley, J.; Rowan, R.L.; Clark, I.K.H.; Waiopehu College 2015 Research Team. Cool? Young people investigate living in cold housing and fuel poverty. A mixed methods action research study. SSM Popul. Health 2017, 3, 66–74.
  50. Mashhoodi, B.; Stead, D.; van Timmeren, A. Spatial homogeneity and heterogeneity of energy poverty: A neglected dimension. Ann. GIS 2018, 25, 19–31.
  51. Howden-Chapman, P.; Viggers, H.; Chapman, R.; O’Sullivan, K.; Barnard, L.T.; Lloyd, B. Tackling cold housing and fuel poverty in New Zealand: A review of policies, research, and health impacts. Energy Policy 2012, 49, 134–142.
  52. Romero, J.C.; Linares, P.; López, X. The policy implications of energy poverty indicators. Energy Policy 2018, 115, 98–108.
  53. Grösche, P. Housing, energy cost, and the poor: Counteracting effects in Germany’s housing allowance program. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 93–98.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Others
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Keyu Chen
,
Chao Feng
View Times: 510
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 27 Jul 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    ScholarVision Creations
    Feedback