Lead-Acid/Lithium-Ion Hybrid Battery Energy Storage System

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Mpho Jim Lencwe	--	2115	2022-07-22 11:23:01	\|
2	format correction	Dean Liu	-25 word(s)	2090	2022-07-25 03:27:20	\| \|
3	format correction	Dean Liu	-339 word(s)	1751	2022-07-29 09:13:59	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/app12146910

The huge success of electric vehicles across the world is challenged by a lack of infrastructure and a major increase in battery material prices. This challenge positions internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to remain a vehicle of choice. The majority of these vehicles use a lead-acid battery (LAB) for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) functions.

battery management strategy control energy sharing hybrid energy storage system

1. Introduction

More than ninety-nine percent of the world’s transport vehicles (TVs) are internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), and ninety-five percent of their energy comes from liquid fuels as well as the petroleum industry ^[1]. The growth of electric vehicles (EVs) in most developed countries has taken centre stage and has seen rapid uptake growth from consumers. However, this trend is not similar in other parts of the world, especially in developing and underdeveloped economies. As indicated in ^[2], China, Europe, and the United States of America account for 2/3 of the overall car market, but currently, 90% are EVs. In other parts of the world, EVs account for less than 2% of overall car sales. Whereas, in developing economies such as Brazil, India, and Indonesia, the EV share is less than 1% and without any increase. Although sales of electric scooters and buses are growing in these nations, the price tag attached to EVs and the lack of charging infrastructure is the main reason for the lack of adoption ^[3]. Despite the drive for sustainability to decarbonise the transport sector by moving from conventional fossil fuel internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs, this move may take a long time for developing and underdeveloped economies. The big success for EVs in the whole world is challenged by limited supplies of components and increases in prices for energy storage materials. Therefore, ICEVs will remain the vehicle of choice in the coming years for many consumers in developing and underdeveloped economies ^[4]. These ICEVs include micro-hybrid vehicles (MHEVs), hybrid EVs (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs). The ICEVs position lead-acid batteries (LABs) as major energy storage to start, ignite, and light (SLI) as well as for backup power supply because they have dominated the market share due to their ability to meet the needed cold-cranking of the internal combustion engine (ICE), robustness, and high-temperature endurance ^[5]^[6]. LABs have seen industrial machinery applications in forklifts, locomotives, uninterrupted power supplies, electric substations, etc. They have proven reliability, lower cost, lower self-discharge rate, extra-ordinary safety performance, and compact enclosure ^[7]. However, the increase in electronic functions such as sensors, and control units, amongst others, to improve vehicle comfort, safety, start/stop and go, and reliability have resulted in increased battery load demand. Furthermore, additional systems, including driver assistance, autonomous driving, recuperation of braking energy, vehicle stabilisation, and acceleration, require high peak electric power ^[8]^[9]. This increase in battery load demand increases battery degradation, thus affecting the battery performance by shortening its lifespan and reducing the storage capacity ^[10]^[11]. The short lifespan, relatively lower depth-of-discharge (DoD), and slow charging rate create an unfavourable environment in recent vehicle applications ^[12]. Additionally, LABs’ performance in terms of lifespan and storage capacity is affected by the way they are charged/discharged, which results in softening and shading of positive active material ^[13]; from a chemical point of view, negative electrode failure during discharge, positive active material corrosion, and premature capacity loss during deep discharge occur ^[14]. While more research looks at different ways to develop lightweight batteries that have a longer lifespan and enhanced safety, such as in ^[15], where polyaniline-modified lignosulfonate is added to a negative material of LAB, to improve its lifespan. Subsequently, in Ref. ^[16], the researchers use stereotaxically constructed graphene to prevent sulfation and enhance the high rate of discharge capability, battery capacity, and lifespan. Further studies on chemistry development are included in ^[17]. Yet, these methods are expensive, time-consuming, and require complex equipment, correspondingly. Thus, if the battery chemistry is untampered and a new design is developed, it can achieve more in terms of satisfying vehicle load requirements. Again, the new design has to depend on the cell-to-pack design and battery size for better performance ^[18].

On the other hand, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have a wide attraction in modern automobile technologies such as EVs and PHEVs because of their superior performance, decreasing cost, and recently, as a “drop-in” to replace LABs in ICEVs. Nevertheless, LIB’s market share remains low in these applications ^[19]. The current price of these batteries is still high, and it requires a significant reduction for wide adoption ^[20]. Moreover, these batteries may pose thermal runway and safety concerns if used as an SLI because of the abused operating nature of this application ^[5]. In addition, LIBs face extreme difficulty in using their energy, especially at a pack level, because active or passive cell balancing becomes crucial. Despite these challenges, the LIBs have a high energy density, high utilisation efficiency, long lifespan, and are friendly to the environment. The developed lithium-ion phosphate batteries (LFPs) have many advantages compared to the conventional LIBs because their material is abundant, safe, weigh less, has high cycling loads, reduced memory effect, has higher power density, and is less costly. They are commercially available and used in many applications such as storage for renewable energy, electric buses, and EVs (e.g. Tesla, Volkswagen, Renault, and Ford) because of their good thermal/cycling stability, safety, and resilience to the environment ^[7]^[12]^[18]^[21]^[22]. Even though they have the best combination of excellent properties for certain vehicle applications, the use of Li-ion batteries in developing and underdeveloped economies for SLI functions remains a challenge because of the lack of established recycling processes and factories. The adoption of various combinations of battery storage systems may increase the chance to clean and less-carbon TVs ^[23], and without tampering with battery chemistry, the new battery designs may be developed, thus depending on the battery size ^[18]. Hence, providing cost tradeoff ^[24] of hybrid different battery technologies requires an excellent power management system to adequately share the power and improve the performance of these batteries in terms of lifespan, power delivery, and storage capacity. Moreover, because generally, during vehicle operation, the unstable power supply may occur and cause unusual operation of these devices, the power management and control could stabilise the power distribution of the energy storage systems, thus managing load demand effectively ^[25], enhancing battery safety, reliability, and security, respectively. Still, BMSs face different challenges, such as diversity of applications and withstanding unprecedented hazardous events ^[26].

2. Improvements in ICE

Taking into account the existing ICEVs around the world now, researchers in ^[27]^[28] suggest that further improvements in ICE can help in decreasing the greenhouse-gas emissions that are currently caused by TVs. This reduction can be achieved through technological advancements, which include enhancing engine efficiency, incorporating hybrid energy storage sources, and using renewable fuels that contain a lower carbon footprint (i.e., Green hydrogen). The effect of lead-acid battery’s short lifespan poses challenges in recent ICEVs. Although LIB has shown great progress and as a solution for SLI application to potentially replace LABs, these batteries have several challenges, including; higher cost, which is not competitive to LABs, their recycling efficiency is low, and in terms of safety, the high power demands in ICEVs may vary from the high current over short periods to deep discharge cycles, and it is unknown at this stage as to how these batteries will perform under these circumstances ^[5]^[29]. Many studies have proposed different solutions for improving LAB’s lifespan for use in TVs, such as in ^[30], where the reserachers combine LAB with a supercapacitor using a battery semi-active cascaded topology approach. This topology connects the battery to the bidirectional DC–DC converter input, and the supercapacitor is connected to the converter’s output. The converter is controlled by a fractional-order proportional-integral-derivative (FOPID) controller to properly charge and discharge the HESS. The HESS operation is optimised by using an atom search algorithm to enhance the LAB lifespan. The study also compared the FOPID with fuzzy logic controller for enhancing battery lifespan. FOPID shows superior performance as compared to fuzzy logic control during HEV operation. On the other hand, ^[31] proposes a double switching-based control for a combination of LAB and LIB energy storage systems for EVs to explore the batteries’ pros and cons. This control selects the battery to be used during different vehicle operation modes under specified conditions and limits. The outcomes of the experimental study show that the HESS saves up to 68.62% of LABs and 29.48% of LIBs energy as compared to a single use of LAB, thus enhancing vehicle travelling range. Moreover, the LIB is used as an auxiliary source to support the LAB. In addition, the proposed system has a lower mass and lower price when compared to a single battery system. However, the study did not provide a cost analysis of the system compared to a single battery system. In ^[32], a combination of LIB, LAB, and a supercapacitor is proposed to overcome the short vehicle range and longer charging time challenges in EVs. The authors use a bidirectional cuk converter and an energy management system (EMS) to improve the HESS efficiency by providing efficient power-sharing amongst the ESSs. LIB is considered the main energy source, LAB is the auxiliary source, and SC provides LAB support to handle rapid power dynamics during vehicle acceleration and braking. The EMS uses two-stage pulse width modulation (PWM) signals and a simple PI control providing charging to the batteries using a constant-current-constant voltage (CC-CV) method. Furthermore, the researchers in ^[33]^[34] propose a combination of LAB and a supercapacitor using a fully active topology approach for TVs. The researchers emphasised that allowing the supercapacitor to absorb high transient power requirements from the TV can improve LAB performance significantly in terms of lifespan.

Therefore, despite the rich, relevant literature on the hybridisation of LIB and LAB, there is little attention to the use of HESS for providing starting functions or as an SLI for ICEVs. The literature focuses more on solving a limited range of issues in EVs. Additionally, although extensive research exists for enhancing LABs lifespan, related studies combine LAB with a supercapacitor, and there is little attention to the LAB and LIB combination. Additionally, there exists no literature that provides the EMS-based on integrated fuzzy logic and triple-loop PI-based control for effective power-sharing of hybridised LIB and LAB. LIB and LAB provide the shared, required cold cranking current needed to start the vehicle in three-second. Two case studies are considered for the ICEVs that use a single battery capacity of 70 Ah and 90 Ah. These batteries can be replaced with a single HESS that provides the required cold cranking current (CCC) at a reduced weight and cost.

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Mpho J. Lencwe

Andre T. Puati Zau

S. P. Daniel Chowdhury

Thomas O. Olwal

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1. Introduction

2. Improvements in ICE

References

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1. Introduction

2. Improvements in ICE​

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2. Improvements in ICE