You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Miriam Ting
 -- 1426 2022-06-30 14:34:26 |
2 format
Jason Zhu
 Meta information modification 1426 2022-07-01 03:34:57 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Ting, M.;  Suzuki, J.B. Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/24689 (accessed on 11 July 2025).
Ting M,  Suzuki JB. Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/24689. Accessed July 11, 2025.
Ting, Miriam, Jon B. Suzuki. "Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/24689 (accessed July 11, 2025).
Ting, M., & Suzuki, J.B. (2022, June 30). Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/24689
Ting, Miriam and Jon B. Suzuki. "Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19." Encyclopedia. Web. 30 June, 2022.
Boosters, Immunosenescence and Vaccinces of COVID-19
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijtm2020021

The COVID-19 pandemic appears to be slowly diminishing with the passage of time with enhancement of preventive and therapeutic strategies, like social distancing, good hand washing, and use of antimicrobial mouth rinses. However, evolving clinical research and observations have resulted in additional recognized systemic manifestations, including but not necessarily limited to multiple organ dysfunction, hypercoagulation, acute lung injury, and multi-organ failure, including the kidneys and heart. These systemic complications associated with COVID-19 may have lingering effects with long haul COVID patients. Immunosenescense may limit the antibody response against SARS-CoV-2 and contribute to “breakthrough infections” despite vaccinations. Vaccines and boosters against SARS-CoV-2 and optimal systemic and oral health may prevent the spread of COVID-19 and increase survival. Current data for appropriate booster intervals is contingent on existing, recognized risk factors of vaccinated patients coupled with rate and extent of immunosenescense. 

COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus immunosenescence vaccines

1. Introduction

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first reported on 31st December 2019, and by 11th March 2020, it was declared a global pandemic by the WHO. COVID-19 started in Wuhan (China) and is caused by the highly contagious severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This single stranded RNA virus has cell-surface spike glycoproteins which penetrate and adhere to host cells [1]. Entry into the host cell is via the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptor, which is found in the heart, lungs, kidneys, tongue, and salivary glands [1]. SARS-CoV-2 can easily colonize oral, nasal, and pharyngeal mucosa [2]. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 occurs via aerosol, droplet, oral–fecal routes [3], and contaminated body fluids and surfaces [4].
Clinical COVID-19 symptoms included fever, dry cough, sore throat, myalgia, fatigue, diarrhea [5][6], and loss of taste [7]. These symptoms may appear 5.2 days after infection [8]. The majority of the time, COVID-19 infected patients may be asymptomatic or have mild symptoms. The report of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or multi-organ failure was less than 5% [8]. SARS-CoV-2 can be highly contagious; asymptomatic patient may also transmit the virus. A study reported that COVID-19 transmission in asymptomatic patients and symptomatic patients were statistically similar [9]. The risk factors for COVID-19 include advanced age, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and heart disease [10][11][12].

2. Pathogenesis and Immunosenescence

COVID-19 progression includes: (1) innate immunity activation; (2) adaptive immunity activation; (3) cytokine release syndrome (“cytokine storm”) [13]. Cytokine storms are the result of a hyper-responsive host producing exaggerated cytokine release [14][15]. Cytokine storms increase vascular permeability and effector cell infiltration, resulting in excessive monocyte proliferation, lymphocyte apoptosis, and immunodeficiency states [16]. The clinical outcomes include shock, multiple organ dysfunction, hypercoagulation, acute lung injury [13], and multi-organ failure, including the kidneys and heart [17][18][19].
The COVID-19 proinflammatory factors involved in the cytokine storm included IFN-γ, IFN-γ-induced protein 10, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, and monocyte chemoattractant protein [20]. COVID-19 non-survivors present with higher IL-6 levels than survivors [15]. IL-6 has been linked to increased severity [21][22][23][24][25] and deaths in the elderly and immunocompromised [26]. This increased inflammatory cytokine activation can cause long-lasting damage to the immune system [27]. The formation of microthrombi to larger blood clots in the vessels of major organs, including the lungs, may be responsible for the debilitating systemic effects of COVID-19 on the body [27].
Oral health and systemic health may influence COVID-19 susceptibility. The antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 peaks at 14–21 days after COVID-19 exposure [28]. SARS-CoV-2 can also stimulate neutralizing secretory antibodies, Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which can dominate the initial mucosal immune response in the oral cavity [29]. Patients with periodontal inflammation or other chronic inflammatory diseases, with an incipient heightened proinflammatory response, may have an increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility and complications. In the oral cavity, the periodontal response to bacterial were designated as “high”, “low”, and “slow” [30]. High IL-1β levels were detected in the inflamed tissues of the “high” group. These differences of inflammatory response may contribute to COVID-19 patients, having different levels of disease severity from mild infections, hospitalizations, or morbidity [30].
COVID-19 infected older adults aged 70 and above presented with multiple complications and mortality [31]. Severe complications of COVID-19 were septic shock, blood clots, sepsis, pneumonia, and ARDS [32]. The cause of death was not usually the initial viral infection, but post-viral complications like ARDS. Headaches, encephalitis, and strokes have been reported complications in patients with COVID-19 [33]. Cardiac signs and symptoms include heart damage, arrhythmias, and heart failure. Myocarditis and cardiac muscle inflammation have been reported complications of COVID-19 [33].
Age-related compromised immunity (immunosenescence) may be the cause of increased mortality from COVID-19 in the elderly. Immunosenescence affects innate and adaptive immunity; it may cause increased cytokine production [34], lymphocyte blastogenesis impairment [35], ineffective antibody production, failed T-cell response, and severe inflammatory organ dysfunction [36]. Thus, immunosenescence may increase the susceptibility and the severity of COVID-19, as well as diminish the responses to the vaccine. This may result in higher COVID-19 vaccine breakthrough infections [37]. In August 2021, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported COVID-19 breakthrough infections, which could be due to waning vaccine antibody reaction or emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants [38].

3. Vaccines and Boosters

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidance document stated that for a vaccine to be considered it should have at least 50% efficacy [39]. Vaccine effectiveness is proportional to the reduction of infection between the vaccinated and non-vaccinated subjects. The ideal vaccine would need to be effective after 1–2 doses, with at least 6 months of protection, and reduce transmission in the infected. It should prevent infection and disease transmission, as well as reduce mortality and disease severity. Randomized controlled vaccine trials evaluated reduction of clinical disease severity, infection, and infectivity duration [40]. However, socioeconomic conditions, geographical settings, age differences, and herd immunity may interfere with the data.
Vaccine development encompasses many methodologies, including targeted nucleic acid DNA or mRNA, adenovirus carrier (viral vector), spike proteins (protein subunits), and inactivated (whole) virus [41]. The objective of these vaccines is to neutralize the mRNA, spike protein, or the virus [42]. A robust Ig G response by B-lymphocytes and plasma cells initiated by these vaccines provides adequate immunological defense against invading SARS-CoV-2.
This UK report supports patients receiving both doses of the two-dose vaccine regimen, with 94% of patients remaining asymptomatic after both doses. Fourteen days after the first dose (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, or AstraZeneca–Oxford vaccines), patients have a 0.5% risk of a breakthrough infection. This dropped to 0.2% of patients with COVID breakthrough infection after the second dose of these vaccines [43].
The diminishing immunologic memory of the patient or the mutating antigenicity of SARS-CoV-2 may decrease in vaccine efficacy as time progresses. A study showed 64% vaccine effectiveness in long term care residents with a median age of 84, and 90% effectiveness in healthcare workers [44]. The vaccine effectiveness in older individuals that are on long term care are more muted compared to healthy older individuals [45]. Vaccine boosters may extend protection, and boosters comprising of multiple vaccinations or with multiple vaccine types may induce a more robust and persistent immunity [46][47]. The medically-compromised have lowered vaccine effectiveness and higher risks of COVID-19 breakthrough infections [37]. However, breakthrough infections have also been reported in fully vaccinated patients [38]. Despite that, vaccines can significantly reduce breakthrough infections. The United Kingdom data [43] reported reduced complications risk, breakthrough infections, and long haul COVID in fully vaccinated patients. However, the antibody levels in the vaccinated may decline faster than the those who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2. A study of 25,000 healthcare workers in United Kingdom reported that infection with SARS-CoV-2 reduced the risk of catching the virus again by 84% for 7 months [48]. For the uninfected but vaccinated individuals, the requirement for a booster would depend on the rate of antibody decline (immunosenescence).
The European Medicines Agency data in December 2021 suggests boosters following full vaccination of patients. However, currently there is no consensus among clinicians on recommendations for timing of a second booster [49]. Immunocompromised patients, aging patients, and patients with certain systemic diseases and conditions, BMI over 30, and immunosenescence play a role in longevity of antibody protection against SARS-CoV-2 [50]. Immunized individuals also appear to have high levels of neutralizing secretory IgA antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 [51].
Despite the success and safety of the COVID-19 vaccines, very rare but life-threatening cases of thrombosis were reported after ChAdOx1nCov-19 (AstraZeneca) vaccination [52]. This presented as unusual blood clots in unusual anatomical locations, mostly reported as sinus or cerebral thrombosis with thrombocytopenia, and is named Vaccine-associated Immune Thrombosis and Thrombocytopenia (VITT). Of vaccinated cases, VITT was reported between 1 in 125,000 and 1 in 1 million [53]. Onset of symptoms reported approximated 1–2 weeks after vaccination [54]. Treatment for it was mostly unfractionated heparin or sometimes immunomodulatory agents like immunoglobulin or steroids. Mortality rate from VITT was reported as 41.0% [55]. Based on the limited cases reported, females on contraceptives seem to be at the highest risk. However, this is ever-changing as more surveillance safety data becomes available for this and other COVID-19 vaccines. The benefits of the COVID-19 vaccinations outweigh the negative effects and incidence of adverse reactions [56].

References

  1. Walls, A.C.; Park, Y.J.; Tortorici, M.A.; Wall, A.; McGuire, A.T.; Veesler, D. Structure, Function, and Antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein. Cell 2020, 183, 281–292.e6.
  2. Wölfel, R.; Corman, V.M.; Guggemos, W.; Seilmaier, M.; Zange, S.; Müller, M.A.; Niemeyer, D.; Jones, T.C.; Vollmar, P.; Rothe, C.; et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 2020, 581, 465–469.
  3. Khan, S.; Liu, J.; Xue, M. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Required Developments in Research and Associated Public Health Concerns. Front. Med. 2020, 7, 310.
  4. Van Doremalen, N.; Bushmaker, T.; Morris, D.H.; Holbrook, M.G.; Gamble, A.; Williamson, B.N.; Tamin, A.; Harcourt, J.L.; Thornburg, N.J.; Gerber, S.I.; et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 1564–1567.
  5. Rothan, H.A.; Byrareddy, S.N. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J. Autoimmun. 2020, 109, 102433.
  6. Greenland, J.R.; Michelow, M.D.; Wang, L.; London, M.J. COVID-19 Infection: Implications for Perioperative and Critical Care Physicians. Anesthesiology 2020, 132, 1346–1361.
  7. Chen, L.; Zhao, J.; Peng, J.; Li, X.; Deng, X.; Geng, Z.; Shen, Z.; Guo, F.; Zhang, Q.; Jin, Y.; et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in saliva and characterization of oral symptoms in COVID-19 patients. Cell Prolif. 2020, 53, e12923.
  8. Li, Q.; Guan, X.; Wu, P.; Wang, X.; Zhou, L.; Tong, Y.; Ren, R.; Leung, K.S.; Lau, E.H.; Wong, J.Y.; et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 1199–1207.
  9. Chen, Y.; Wang, A.H.; Yi, B.; Ding, K.Q.; Wang, H.B.; Wang, J.M.; Shi, H.B.; Wang, S.J.; Xu, G.Z. Epidemiological characteristics of infection in COVID-19 close contacts in Ningbo city. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2020, 41, 667–671.
  10. Zhu, N.; Zhang, D.; Wang, W.; Li, X.; Yang, B.; Song, J.; Zhao, X.; Huang, B.; Shi, W.; Lu, R.; et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 727–733.
  11. Zhou, F.; Yu, T.; Du, R.; Fan, G.; Liu, Y.; Liu, Z.; Xiang, J.; Wang, Y.; Song, B.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2020, 395, 1054–1062.
  12. Simonnet, A.; Chetboun, M.; Poissy, J.; Raverdy, V.; Noulette, J.; Duhamel, A.; Labreuche, J.; Mathieu, D.; Pattou, F.; Jourdain, M.; et al. High Prevalence of Obesity in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) Requiring Invasive Mechanical Ventilation. Obesity 2020, 28, 1195–1199.
  13. Calabrese, L.H.; Lenfant, T.; Calabrese, C. Interferon therapy for COVID-19 and emerging infections: Prospects and concerns. Clevel. Clin. J. Med. 2020; in press.
  14. Siu, K.L.; Yuen, K.S.; Castano-Rodriguez, C.; Ye, Z.W.; Yeung, M.L.; Fung, S.Y.; Yuan, S.; Chan, C.P.; Yuen, K.Y.; Enjuanes, L.; et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus ORF3a protein activates the NLRP3 inflammasome by promoting TRAF3-dependent ubiquitination of ASC. FASEB J. 2019, 33, 8865–8877.
  15. Tay, M.Z.; Poh, C.M.; Rénia, L.; Macary, P.A.; Ng, L.F.P. The trinity of COVID-19: Immunity, inflammation and intervention. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2020, 20, 363–374.
  16. Tisoncik, J.R.; Korth, M.J.; Simmons, C.P.; Farrar, J.; Martin, T.R.; Katze, M.G. Into the eye of the cytokine storm. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2012, 76, 16–32.
  17. Jose, R.J.P.; Manuel, A. COVID-19 cytokine storm: The interplay between inflammation and coagulation. Lancet Respir. Med. 2020, 8, e46–e47.
  18. Perico, L.; Benigni, A.; Remuzzi, G. Should COVID-19 Concern Nephrologists? Why and to What Extent? The Emerging Impasse of Angiotensin Blockade. Nephron 2020, 144, 213–221.
  19. Yao, X.H.; Li, T.Y.; He, Z.C.; Ping, Y.F.; Liu, H.W.; Yu, S.C.; Mou, H.M.; Wang, L.H.; Zhang, H.R.; Fu, W.J.; et al. A pathological report of three COVID-19 cases by minimal invasive autopsies. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi 2020, 49, 411–417.
  20. Wong, C.K.; Lam, C.W.K.; Wu, A.K.L.; Ip, W.K.; Lee, N.L.S.; Chan, I.H.S.; Lit, L.C.W.; Hui, D.S.C.; Chan, M.H.M.; Chung, S.S.C.; et al. Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2004, 136, 95–103.
  21. Chen, L.; Liu, H.G.; Liu, W.; Liu, J.; Liu, K.; Shang, J.; Deng, Y.; Wei, S. Analysis of clinical features of 29 patients with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020, 43, 203–208.
  22. McGonagle, D.; Sharif, K.; O’Regan, A.; Bridgewood, C. The Role of Cytokines including Interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced Pneumonia and Macrophage Activation Syndrome-Like Disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 2020, 19, 102537.
  23. Henry, B.M.; de Oliveira, M.H.S.; Benoit, S.; Plebani, M.; Lippi, G. Hematologic, biochemical and immune biomarker abnormalities associated with severe illness and mortality in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A meta-analysis. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2020, 58, 1021–1028.
  24. Ulhaq, Z.S.; Soraya, G.V. Interleukin-6 as a potential biomarker of COVID-19 progression. Med. Mal. Infect. 2020, 50, 382–383.
  25. Zhang, C.; Wu, Z.; Li, J.W.; Zhao, H.; Wang, G.Q. Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19: Interleukin-6 receptor antagonist tocilizumab may be the key to reduce mortality. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2020, 55, 105954.
  26. Adriaensen, W.; Matheï, C.; Vaes, B.; Van Pottelbergh, G.; Wallemacq, P.; Degryse, J.M. Interleukin-6 as a first-rated serum inflammatory marker to predict mortality and hospitalization in the oldest old: A regression and CART approach in the BELFRAIL study. Exp. Gerontol. 2015, 69, 53–61.
  27. Wu, Y.; Huang, X.; Sun, J.; Xie, T.; Lei, Y.; Muhammad, J.; Li, X.; Zeng, X.; Zhou, F.; Qin, H.; et al. Clinical Characteristics and Immune Injury Mechanisms in 71 Patients with COVID-19. mSphere 2020, 5, e00362-20.
  28. Long, Q.X.; Liu, B.Z.; Deng, H.J.; Wu, G.C.; Deng, K.; Chen, Y.K.; Liao, P.; Qiu, J.F.; Lin, Y.; Cai, X.F.; et al. Antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19. Nat. Med. 2020, 26, 845–848.
  29. Sterlin, D.; Fadlallah, J.; Adams, O.; Fieschi, C.; Parizot, C.; Dorgham, K.; Rajkumar, A.; Autaa, G.; El-Kafsi, H.; Charuel, J.-L.; et al. Human IgA binds a diverse array of commensal bacteria. J. Exp. Med. 2020, 217, e20181635.
  30. Bamashmous, S.; Kotsakis, G.A.; Kerns, K.A.; Leroux, B.G.; Zenobia, C.; Chen, D.; Trivedi, H.M.; McLean, J.S.; Darveau, R.P. Human variation in gingival inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021, 118, e2012578118.
  31. Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020, 395, 497–506.
  32. World Health Organization. Clinical Management of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection When Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Infection is Suspected; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020.
  33. Wadman, M.; Couzin-Frankel, J.; Kaiser, J.; Matacic, C. A rampage through the body. Science 2020, 368, 356–360.
  34. Fulop, T.; Larbi, A.; Dupuis, G.; Le Page, A.; Frost, E.H.; Cohen, A.A.; Witkowski, J.M.; Franceschi, C. Immunosenescence and Inflamm-Aging as Two Sides of the Same Coin: Friends or Foes? Front. Immunol. 2017, 8, 1960.
  35. Kovtonyuk, L.V.; Fritsch, K.; Feng, X.; Manz, M.G.; Takizawa, H. Inflamm-Aging of Hematopoiesis, Hematopoietic Stem Cells, and the Bone Marrow Microenvironment. Front. Immunol. 2016, 7, 502.
  36. Cunha, L.L.; Perazzio, S.F.; Azzi, J.; Cravedi, P.; Riella, L.V. Remodeling of the Immune Response with Aging: Immunosenescence and Its Potential Impact on COVID-19 Immune Response. Front. Immunol. 2020, 11, 1748.
  37. Tenforde, M.W.; Olson, S.M.; Self, W.H.; Talbot, H.K.; Lindsell, C.J.; Steingrub, J.S.; Shapiro, N.I.; Ginde, A.A.; Douin, D.J.; Prekker, M.E.; et al. Effectiveness of Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna Vaccines Against COVID-19 Among Hospitalized Adults Aged >/=65 Years—United States, January-March 2021. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2021, 70, 674–679.
  38. Brown, C.M.; Vostok, J.; Johnson, H.; Burns, M.; Gharpure, R.; Sami, S.; Sabo, R.T.; Hall, N.; Foreman, A.; Schubert, P.L.; et al. Outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 Infections, Including COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Infections, Associated with Large Public Gatherings—Barnstable County, Massachusetts, July 2021. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2021, 70, 1059–1062.
  39. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Development and Licensure of Vaccines to Prevent COVID-19: Guidance for Industry; U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Rockville, MD, USA, 2020.
  40. Weinberg, G.A.; Szilagyi, P.G. Vaccine Epidemiology: Efficacy, Effectiveness, and the Translational Research Roadmap. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 201, 1607–1610.
  41. Wang, J.; Peng, Y.; Xu, H.; Cui, Z.; Williams, R.O., 3rd. The COVID-19 Vaccine Race: Challenges and Opportunities in Vaccine Formulation. AAPS PharmSciTech 2020, 21, 225.
  42. Thanh Le, T.; Andreadakis, Z.; Kumar, A.; Gómez Román, R.; Tollefsen, S.; Saville, M.; Mayhew, S. The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2020, 19, 305–306.
  43. Antonelli, M.; Penfold, R.S.; Merino, J.; Sudre, C.H.; Molteni, E.; Berry, S.; Canas, L.S.; Graham, M.S.; Klaser, K.; Modat, M.; et al. Risk factors and disease profile of post-vaccination SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK users of the COVID Symptom Study app: A prospective, community-based, nested, case-control study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2021, 22, 43–55.
  44. Moustsen-Helms, I.R.; Emborg, H.D.; Nielsen, J.; Nielsen, K.F.; Krause, T.G.; Molbak, K.; Møller, K.L.; Berthelsen, A.S.N.; Valentiner-Branth, P. Vaccine effectiveness after 1stand 2nd dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine in long-term care facility residents and healthcare workers—A Danish cohort study. medrxiv, 2021; in press.
  45. Haas, E.J.; Angulo, F.J.; McLaughlin, J.M.; Anis, E.; Singer, S.R.; Khan, F.; Brooks, N.; Smaja, M.; Mircus, G.; Pan, K.; et al. Impact and effectiveness of mRNA BNT162b2 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 infections and COVID-19 cases, hospitalisations, and deaths following a nationwide vaccination campaign in Israel: An observational study using national surveillance data. Lancet 2021, 397, 1819–1829.
  46. Tatsis, N.; Ertl, H.C. Adenoviruses as vaccine vectors. Mol. Ther. 2004, 10, 616–629.
  47. Dolzhikova, I.V.; Zubkova, O.V.; Tukhvatulin, A.I.; Dzharullaeva, A.S.; Tukhvatulina, N.M.; Shcheblyakov, D.V.; Shmarov, M.M.; Tokarskaya, E.A.; Simakova, Y.V.; Egorova, D.A.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of GamEvac-Combi, a heterologous VSV- and Ad5-vectored Ebola vaccine: An open phase I/II trial in healthy adults in Russia. Hum. Vaccin. Immunother. 2017, 13, 613–620.
  48. Hall, V.J.; Foulkes, S.; Charlett, A.; Atti, A.; Monk, E.J.; Simmons, R.; Wellington, E.; Cole, M.J.; Saei, A.; Oguti, B.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection rates of antibody-positive compared with antibody-negative health-care workers in England: A large, multicentre, prospective cohort study (SIREN). Lancet 2021, 397, 1459–1469.
  49. Ferdinands, J.M.; Rao, S.; Dixon, B.E.; Mitchell, P.K.; DeSilva, M.B.; Irving, S.A.; Lewis, N.; Natarajan, K.; Stenehjem, E.; Grannis, S.J.; et al. Waning 2-Dose and 3-Dose Effectiveness of mRNA Vaccines Against COVID-19-Associated Emergency Department and Urgent Care Encounters and Hospitalizations Among Adults During Periods of Delta and Omicron Variant Predominance—VISION Network, 10 States, August 2021-January 2022. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2022, 71, 255–263.
  50. Ting, M.; Suzuki, J.B. SARS-CoV-2: Overview and Its Impact on Oral Health. Biomedicines 2021, 9, 1690.
  51. Levine-Tiefenbrun, M.; Yelin, I.; Katz, R.; Herzel, E.; Golan, Z.; Schreiber, L.; Wolf, T.; Nadler, V.; Ben-Tov, A.; Kuint, J.; et al. Initial report of decreased SARS-CoV-2 viral load after inoculation with the BNT162b2 vaccine. Nat. Med. 2021, 27, 790–792.
  52. European Medicine Agency (EMA). AstraZeneca’s COVID-19 Vaccine: EMA Finds Possible Link to Very Rare Cases of Unusual Blood Clots with Low Blood Platelets. Available online: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/astrazenecas-covid-19-vaccine-ema-finds-possible-link-very-rare-cases-unusual-blood-clots-low-blood (accessed on 23 April 2022).
  53. Menaka, P.; Schull, M.; Razak, F.; Grill, A.; Ivers, N.; Maltsev, A.; Miller, K.J.; Schwartz, B.; Stall, N.M.; Steiner, R.; et al. Vaccine-Induced Prothrombotic Immune Thrombocytopenia (VIPIT) following AstraZeneca COVID-19 Vaccination: Interim Guidance for Healthcare Professionals in Emergency Department and Inpatient Settings. Infect. Dis. Clin. Care 2021, 1, 10-47326.
  54. Oldenburg, J.; Klamroth, R.; Langer, F.; Albisetti, M.; von Auer, C.; Ay, C.; Korte, W.; Scharf, R.E.; Pötzsch, B.; Greinacher, A. Diagnosis and Management of Vaccine-Related Thrombosis following AstraZeneca COVID-19 Vaccination: Guidance Statement from the GTH. Hamostaseologie 2021, 41, 184–189.
  55. Franchini, M.; Liumbruno, G.M.; Pezzo, M. COVID-19 vaccine-associated immune thrombosis and thrombocytopenia (VITT): Diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for a new syndrome. Eur. J. Haematol. 2021, 107, 173–180.
  56. European Medicine Agency (EMA). COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca: Benefits Still Outweigh the Risks Despite Possible Link to Rare Blood Clots with Low Blood Platelets. Available online: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/covid-19-vaccine-astrazeneca-benefits-still-outweigh-risks-despite-possible-link-rare-blood-clots (accessed on 23 April 2022).
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Infectious Diseases
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Miriam Ting
,
Jon B. Suzuki
View Times: 554
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 01 Jul 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback