You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Submitted Successfully!
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic. For video creation, please contact our Academic Video Service.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 Faisal Eudes Sam -- 1696 2022-05-23 21:07:58 |
2 update layout and references Rita Xu Meta information modification 1696 2022-05-24 05:00:13 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Academic Video Service to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Sam, F.; Salifu, R.; , .; Jiang, Y. Elicitors in Grapevine Defense. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23256 (accessed on 11 December 2025).
Sam F, Salifu R,  , Jiang Y. Elicitors in Grapevine Defense. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23256. Accessed December 11, 2025.
Sam, Faisal, Rafia Salifu,  , Yumei Jiang. "Elicitors in Grapevine Defense" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23256 (accessed December 11, 2025).
Sam, F., Salifu, R., , ., & Jiang, Y. (2022, May 23). Elicitors in Grapevine Defense. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23256
Sam, Faisal, et al. "Elicitors in Grapevine Defense." Encyclopedia. Web. 23 May, 2022.
Elicitors in Grapevine Defense
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/horticulturae8050451

Elicitors as alternatives to agrochemicals are widely used as a sustainable farming practice. The use of elicitors in viticulture to control disease and improve phenolic compounds is widely recognized in this field. Concurrently, they also affect other secondary metabolites, such as aroma compounds. Grape and wine aroma compounds are an important quality factor that reflects nutritional information and influences consumer preference.

benzothiadiazole chitosan grapes aroma volatile compounds

1. Introduction

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the essential fruit crops cultivated globally for its economic and health benefits. The primary product, grapes, are consumed as fresh fruits or juice (table grapes) or processed into wines (wine grapes) [1]. The quality of grape products, especially wine, is influenced mainly by the primary and secondary metabolites of the grapes [2][3]. However, these metabolites are affected by several pests and diseases as well as vine management practices and many other factors (e.g., soil, climate, weather).
The main aim of grape producers in the past was to enhance grape productivity and obtain a good yield to meet the high demand for wines. Therefore, different strategies, such as the use of fungicides and pesticides and other management practices, were employed to prevent any biotic or/and abiotic stresses that could decrease yield [4][5][6]. However, the use of fungicides and pesticides has adverse effects on human health and the environment. Excessive usage causes residual buildup in soils, plants, and groundwaters, affecting beneficial soil organisms, humans, and the environment, while continual use leads to pathogen resistance [7][8].
Although it is necessary to prevent grape diseases and infections, adverse effects on fruit yield and quality must be avoided. In addition, there has been more emphasis recently on achieving sustainable quality yields through “green production.” Under this term, the European Commission has recently announced measures aimed at achieving healthy and environmentally friendly food production by 2050 [9][10]. This includes reducing the use of pesticides and fungicides. According to the FAO [11], the world population will grow to 9.7 billion by 2050. To prevent food shortages and ensure the sustainable development of high-quality food, environmentally friendly methods are currently being increasingly used, as opposed to pesticides and fungicides.
Elicitors are stress stimuli capable of inducing similar defense responses in plants as induced by the pathogen infection [5][7]. Elicitors induce plant resistance against pathogens by activating signals that enhance the production of secondary metabolites. Elicitors are of different types; chemical elicitors such as benzothiadiazole or methyl Jasmonate, physical elicitors such as light, salinity, or temperature, and elicitors of biological origin, such as oligosaccharides, yeast derivatives, or protein fragments [12][13]. The use of elicitors as alternatives to agrochemicals in preventing grape diseases and infections also has a great impact on the quality components of grapes [14][15]. Numerous studies intending to improve wine aroma quality have investigated the effects of different elicitors on the volatile compositions of grapes. However, their impact varies depending on several factors such as grape cultivar, type of elicitor, and dose.

2. Grape Composition

Grape quality is primarily assessed by the compositional chemical measures of the grape, such as the pH, sugars, titratable acidity, color (for red grapes), aroma compounds, phenolic compounds, and other volatiles [16][17]. These chemical parameters are influenced by the different vineyard soil conditions, climate conditions, and vine management practices and changes throughout the development period [2][17][18]. The credibility of these parameters, especially the sugar content of grapes as a qualifier of “quality” at harvest, is not a point of contention [19][20]. Sugar as a primary metabolite also influences several secondary metabolites, especially the concentrations of aroma compounds [21][22]. According to Rolland et al. [23], soluble sugars also function as signaling molecules aside from their impact on the overall sensory quality of fruits. They modulate genes involved in defense and metabolic processes, thus, affecting fruit maturity and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.

2.1. Grape-Derived Aroma Compounds

Aroma is an essential characteristic that varies significantly with grape maturity and ultimately determines the grape and wine quality. The aroma components of wine are an important factor that reflects the nutritional information of the wine and influences consumer liking [24]. Depending on the origin of aroma compounds, they are classified either as primary, secondary, or tertiary aromas [25]. The varietal (primary) aromas are derived from grapes and vary depending on the cultivars, climate conditions, and vineyard practices [4]. Aromas produced during maceration and fermentation are known as secondary aromas, while tertiary aromas are formed during the aging of wine [4]. Grape-derived aromas are found both in the skin and the pulp [26], with a low human detection threshold [27]. Grapes consist of hundreds of volatile compounds, some of which are present in free odor-active forms, and the majority are found in glycosylated form, serving as potential aroma reservoirs [28].

2.1.1. Terpenoids

Terpenoids, among the various classes of grape-derived aromas, are the most studied volatile compounds. Terpenoids are grouped according to their carbon numbers into hemiterpenes (C5), monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), and tetraterpenes (C40), with monoterpenes (C10) as the dominant class [4][29][30]. Grapes are categorized into Muscat, non-Muscat aromatic, and neutral varieties based on their monoterpene concentration levels [24]. Monoterpenes are synthesized through the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway and the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). Thereafter, through the activity of terpene synthases (TPS), monoterpenes are formed from 2-(E)-geranyl diphosphate (GPP) [31]. However, among the two biosynthetic routes, the MEP pathway is said to be the prime route for the formation of terpenoids in grapes [32]. Terpenoids are stored as free and bound volatiles, mainly in the grape skin, with trace concentrations in the pulp [4][30]. Climate, management practices such as grape shading, elicitation, and many other factors (e.g., pruning, irrigation, fertilization) influence the concentrations of terpenes, as reported in the literature [33][34][35]. For instance, concentrations of monoterpenes in Sauvignon blanc grapes decreased with high canopy density [36], while the concentration of these molecules increased when Sauvignon blanc grapes were exposed directly to the sun after leaf removal [37].

2.1.2. Norisoprenoids

Norisoprenoids are volatile compounds of 9, 10, 11, or 13 carbon cyclic chemical structures derived from carotenoids [4][38][39]. Carotenoids are pigments produced in the chloroplast and decline during grape ripening due to the unavailability of the chloroplast [40][41][42]. Hence, decreasing the norisoprenoids synthesized. Norisoprenoids are formed through the conversion of biodegraded carotenoids by enzymes to the aroma precursor and subsequently to the aroma-active compound by the acid-catalyzed conversion [4][30][38][40][41]. Norisoprenoids are grouped into megastigmane and non-megastigmane forms, with most norisoprenoids in the megastigmane form differing based on the position of the oxygen functional group [4][38]. C13-norisoprenoids are the abundant norisoprenoids in grapes, with β-ionone, β-damascenone, vitispirane, actinidiol, 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2- dihydro naphthalene (TDN), and 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone (TCH) as the most prevalent compounds conferring fruity and floral notes [4][30]. Grape-derived norisoprenoids are affected by vineyard management practices such as leaf removal, cover cropping, irrigation, and many other factors (e.g., fertilization, grape shading) [39][43][44].

2.1.3. Methoxypyrazines (MPs)

Nitrogen-containing grape-derived volatiles, 3-Alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines (MPs), are found abundantly in the stems (79.2%) rather than in the berries (20.8%) [45]. The precise biosynthesis pathway of MPs is still unclear, although they are suggested to be derived from the metabolism of amino acids [4][30]. However, the last step in the synthesis of MPs (O-methyltransferases (OMT) methylation of hydroxypyrazine precursors to methoxypyrazines) is explicit, as several identified genes correlated positively with the precursors [46][47][48][49].
The most important MPs, 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine (IBMP), 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine (SBMP), and 2- methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine (IPMP), out of the seven detected in grapes, impact grassy, herbal, bell pepper, leafy, and asparagus-like odorants in several wines such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Cabernet franc, Carmènere, and Merlot [33][49][50][51][52]. The most abundant among the three important MPs is IBMP, mostly found in the grape skin [4][45]. Koch et al. [53] studied the accumulation of IBMP in 29 different grapes and reported high levels of IBMP in some cultivars compared to trace levels or undetected IBMP in other cultivars. Several studies have shown that grape variety and other factors such as maturity, climate, leaf removal, and light exposure [39][50][54][55][56] influence the accumulation and concentrations of MPs.

2.1.4. Fatty Acids Derivatives

Fatty acid-derived volatiles, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, esters, and acids, constitute the majority of volatile compounds in grapes [38][42]. These compounds are synthesized through the α-oxidation, β-oxidation, or lipoxygenase pathways [42]. C6 aldehydes and alcohols are the most abundant compounds among these derivatives. The C6 compounds are produced from linoleic and linolenic acids enzymatically by lipoxygenase (LOX), hydroperoxide lyase (HPL), (3Z), (2E)-enal isomerase, and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) thru the LOX pathway in damaged and crushed grape tissues [42][57]. C6 compounds are partly responsible for the green, herbaceous odorant in grapes and grape products. The concentrations of C6 compounds are varietal dependent [58][59] and also influenced by maturity [39][59][60] and season [59][61]. The concentrations of the C6 compounds in most of these studies were high during the pre-veraison and veraison stages but started to decline after veraison. However, this was not the case for all the studies. For example, in the study reported by Salifu et al. [60], they observed decreasing concentrations of all C6 aldehydes and alcohols from the pre-veraison to maturity stages, except for 1-hexanol, which observed higher concentrations during the pre-veraison and maturity stages. Likewise, the study on Pinot noir grapes by Yuan and Qian [39] reported continuous decreasing concentrations of C6 alcohols after the veraison stage. These observations affirm that grape variety influences the concentrations of C6 compounds.

2.2. Grape Amino Acids

Amino acids are vital not only for the synthesis of proteins but also as precursors for the production of aroma compounds [62][63], signaling molecules [64], and triggering defenses against biotic and abiotic stresses [65][66]. Amino acids are the main nitrogenous compounds in grapes (approximately 25–30%) amassed in the skin, seeds, and pulp [67][68][69]. The composition and concentration of amino acids vary with vintage, grape variety, level of maturity, and soil fertility [70][71][72][73][74]. In relation to the cultivar, previous works [74][75][76] observed that total amino acids concentration in white grapes was higher than total amino acids concentration in red grapes, and within the red grape varieties, those with relatively high chroma (measure of anthocyanins) had low total amino acids concentration compared to varieties with low chroma. According to Guan et al. [77], the inverse relation of the color index and concentrations of amino acids from a metabolic viewpoint hypothesized that the high color index could be at the expense of amino acid precursors (C-skeleton). Furthermore, the nutrient status of the vine, especially the nitrogen level, greatly impacts the composition of grape amino acids, as observed by these authors [70][71][72][73][78].

References

  1. FAO and OIV. Table and Dried Grapes. FAO-OIV FOCUS 2016. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Organisation of Vine and Wine 2016. pp. 1–64. Available online: www.fao.org (accessed on 1 March 2022).
  2. Jackson, R.S. Vineyard Practice; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 151–330.
  3. González-Barreiro, C.; Rial-Otero, R.; Cancho-Grande, B.; Simal-Gándara, J. Wine Aroma Compounds in Grapes: A Critical Review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2015, 55, 202–218.
  4. Alem, H.; Rigou, P.; Schneider, R.; Ojeda, H.; Torregrosa, L. Impact of agronomic practices on grape aroma composition: A review. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 975–985.
  5. Thakur, M.; Sohal, B.S. Role of Elicitors in Inducing Resistance in Plants against Pathogen Infection: A Review. ISRN Biochem. 2013, 2013, 762412.
  6. Garde-Cerdán, T.; Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G.; López, R.; Rubio-Bretón, P.; Pérez-Álvarez, E.P. Influence of foliar application of phenylalanine and urea at two doses to vineyards on grape volatile composition and amino acids content. Vitis-J. Grapevine Res. 2018, 57, 137–141.
  7. Caicedo-López, L.H.; Villagómez Aranda, A.L.; Sáenz de la O, D.; Gómez, C.E.Z.; Márquez, E.E.; Zepeda, H.R. Elicitors: Bioethical implications for agriculture and human health. Rev. Bioet. 2021, 29, 76–86.
  8. Héloir, M.C.; Adrian, M.; Brulé, D.; Claverie, J.; Cordelier, S.; Daire, X.; Dorey, S.; Gauthier, A.; Lemaître-Guillier, C.; Negrel, J.; et al. Recognition of Elicitors in Grapevine: From MAMP and DAMP Perception to Induced Resistance. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 1117.
  9. European Commission. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions: The European Green Deal; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2019.
  10. European Commission. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions: A Farm to Fork Strategy for a Fair, Healthy and Environmentally-Friendly Food System; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2020.
  11. FAO. The Future of Food and Agriculture–Alternative Pathways to 2050; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2018; ISBN 9789251301586.
  12. Lemaitre-Guillier, C.; Dufresne, C.; Chartier, A.; Cluzet, S.; Valls, J.; Jacquens, L.; Douillet, A.; Aveline, N.; Adrian, M.; Daire, X. Vocs are relevant biomarkers of elicitor-induced defences in grapevine. Molecules 2021, 26, 4258.
  13. Gutiérrez, N.; López-De-silanes, L.; Escott, C.; Loira, I.; Del Fresno, J.M.; Suárez-Lepe, J.A.; Morata, A. The effect of elicitors and canopy management in the chemical composition of vitis vinifera red varieties in warm and hot areas in spain. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1192.
  14. Moreno-Escamilla, J.O.; Alvarez-Parrilla, E.; De La Rosa, L.A.; Núñez-Gastélum, J.A.; González-Aguilar, G.A.; Rodrigo-García, J. Preharvest Modulation of Postharvest Fruit and Vegetable Quality Effect of Elicitors in the Nutritional and Sensorial Quality of Fruits and Vegetables; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; ISBN 9780128098073.
  15. Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G.; Romanazzi, G.; Garde-Cerdán, T.; Pérez-Álvarez, E.P. A review of the use of biostimulants in the vineyard for improved grape and wine quality: Effects on prevention of grapevine diseases. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2019, 99, 1001–1009.
  16. Niimi, J.; Tomic, O.; Næs, T.; Bastian, S.E.P.; Jeffery, D.W.; Nicholson, E.L.; Maffei, S.M.; Boss, P.K. Objective measures of grape quality: From Cabernet Sauvignon grape composition to wine sensory characteristics. Lwt-Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 123, 109105.
  17. Mirás-Avalos, J.M.; Intrigliolo, D.S. Grape composition under abiotic constrains: Water stress and salinity. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 851.
  18. Power, A.; Truong, V.K.; Chapman, J.; Cozzolino, D. From the laboratory to the vineyard-evolution of the measurement of grape composition using NIR spectroscopy towards high-throughput analysis. High-Throughput 2019, 8, 21.
  19. Bondada, B.; Harbertson, E.; Shrestha, P.M.; Keller, M. Temporal extension of ripening beyond its physiological limits imposes physical and osmotic challenges perturbing metabolism in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries. Sci. Hortic. 2017, 219, 135–143.
  20. Poni, S.; Gatti, M.; Palliotti, A.; Dai, Z.; Duchêne, E.; Truong, T.T.; Ferrara, G.; Matarrese, A.M.S.; Gallotta, A.; Bellincontro, A.; et al. Grapevine quality: A multiple choice issue. Sci. Hortic. 2018, 234, 445–462.
  21. Wang, K.; Liao, Y.; Cao, S.; Di, H.; Zheng, Y. Effects of benzothiadiazole on disease resistance and soluble sugar accumulation in grape berries and its possible cellular mechanisms involved. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2015, 102, 51–60.
  22. Conde, C.; Silva, P.; Fontes, N.; Dias, A.; Tavares, R.; Sousa, M.; Agasse, A.; Delrot, S.; Gerós, H. Biochemical changes throughout grape berry development and fruit and wine quality. Food 2007, 1, 1–22.
  23. Rolland, F.; Baena-Gonzalez, E.; Sheen, J. Sugar sensing and signaling in plants: Conserved and novel mechanisms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2006, 57, 675–709.
  24. Wu, Y.; Zhang, W.; Song, S.; Xu, W.; Zhang, C.; Ma, C.; Wang, L.; Wang, S. Evolution of volatile compounds during the development of Muscat grape ‘Shine Muscat’ (Vitis labrusca × V. vinifera). Food Chem. 2020, 309, 125778.
  25. Jiang, B.; Zhang, Z. Volatile compounds of young wines from cabernet sauvignon, cabernet gernischet, and chardonnay varieties grown in the loess plateau region of china. Molecules 2010, 15, 9184–9196.
  26. Garde-Cerdán, T.; Santamaría, P.; Rubio-Bretón, P.; González-Arenzana, L.; López-Alfaro, I.; López, R. Foliar application of proline, phenylalanine, and urea to Tempranillo vines: Effect on grape volatile composition and comparison with the use of commercial nitrogen fertilizers. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 60, 684–689.
  27. Koundouras, S.; Hatzidimitriou, E.; Karamolegkou, M.; Dimopoulou, E.; Kallithraka, S.; Tsialtas, J.T.; Zioziou, E.; Nikolaou, N.; Kotseridis, Y. Irrigation and rootstock effects on the phenolic concentration and aroma potential of vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 7805–7813.
  28. Hjelmeland, A.K.; Ebeler, S.E. Glycosidically bound volatile aroma compounds in grapes and wine: A review. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2015, 66, 1–11.
  29. Mahmoud, S.S.; Croteau, R.B. Strategies for transgenic manipulation of monoterpene biosynthesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci. 2002, 7, 366–373.
  30. Yuan, F. Grape and Wine Aroma Influenced by Vine Nutrient Status, Vigor and Crop Levels in Oregon Pinot Noir. Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA, 2016.
  31. Nagegowda, D.A. Plant volatile terpenoid metabolism: Biosynthetic genes, transcriptional regulation and subcellular compartmentation. FEBS Lett. 2010, 584, 2965–2973.
  32. Luan, F.; Wüst, M. Differential incorporation of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose into (3S)-linalool and geraniol in grape berry exocarp and mesocarp. Phytochemistry 2002, 60, 451–459.
  33. Belancic, A.; Agosin, E.; Ibacache, A.; Bordeu, E.; Baumes, R.; Razungles, A.; Bayonove, C. Influence of sun exposure on the aromatic composition of chilean Muscat grape cultivars Moscatel de Alejandria and Moscatel rosada. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1997, 48, 181–186.
  34. Bureau, S.M.; Baumes, R.L.; Razungles, A.J. Effects of vine or bunch shading on the glycosylated flavor precursors in grapes of Vitis vinifera L. Cv. Syrah. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, 1290–1297.
  35. Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G.; Pérez-Álvarez, E.P.; Rubio-Bretón, P.; Garde-Cerdán, T. Changes on Grape Volatile Composition through Elicitation with Methyl Jasmonate, Chitosan, and a Yeast Extract in Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) Grapevines; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; Volume 244, pp. 257–262.
  36. Marais, J.; Hunter, J.J.; Haasbroek, P.D. Effect of Canopy Microclimate, Season and Region on Sauvignon blanc Grape Composition and Wine Quality. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2017, 20, 19–30.
  37. Young, P.R.; Eyeghe-Bickong, H.A.; du Plessis, K.; Alexandersson, E.; Jacobson, D.A.; Coetzee, Z.; Deloire, A.; Vivier, M.A. Grapevine plasticity in response to an altered microclimate: Sauvignon Blanc modulates specific metabolites in response to increased berry exposure. Plant Physiol. 2016, 170, 1235–1254.
  38. Robinson, A.L.; Boss, P.K.; Solomon, P.S.; Trengove, R.D.; Heymann, H.; Ebeler, S.E. Origins of Grape and Wine Aroma. Part 1. Chemical Components and Viticultural Impacts. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2014, 65, 1–24.
  39. Yuan, F.; Qian, M.C. Development of C13-norisoprenoids, carotenoids and other volatile compounds in Vitis vinifera L. Cv. Pinot noir grapes. Food Chem. 2016, 192, 633–641.
  40. Razungles, A.J.; Gunata, Z.Y.; Pinatel, S.; Baumes, R.L.; Bayonove, C.L. Quantitative Studies on Terpenes, Norisoprenoides and their Precursors in Several Varieties of Grapes. Sci. Aliment. 1993, 13, 59–72.
  41. Hardie, W.J.; Aggenbach, S.J.; Jaudzems, V.G. The plastids of the grape pericarp and their significance in isoprenoid synthesis. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 1996, 2, 144–154.
  42. Schwab, W.; Davidovich-Rikanati, R.; Lewinsohn, E. Biosynthesis of plant-derived flavor compounds. Plant J. 2008, 54, 712–732.
  43. Feng, H.; Yuan, F.; Skinkis, P.A.; Qian, M.C. Influence of cluster zone leaf removal on Pinot noir grape chemical and volatile composition. Food Chem. 2015, 173, 414–423.
  44. Bindon, K.A.; Dry, P.R.; Loveys, B.R. Influence of plant water status on the production of C13- norisoprenoid precursors in Vitis vinifera L. cv. cabernet sauvignon grape berries. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 4493–4500.
  45. Boubee, D.R. Research on 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine in grapes and wine. Acad. Amorim Bordx. 2003, 1–21.
  46. Sam, F.E.; Ma, T.Z.; Salifu, R.; Wang, J.; Jiang, Y.M.; Zhang, B.; Han, S.Y. Techniques for dealcoholization of wines: Their impact on wine phenolic composition, volatile composition, and sensory characteristics. Foods 2021, 10, 2498.
  47. Dunlevy, J.D.; Dennis, E.G.; Soole, K.L.; Perkins, M.V.; Davies, C.; Boss, P.K. A methyltransferase essential for the methoxypyrazine-derived flavour of wine. Plant J. 2013, 75, 606–617.
  48. Dunlevy, J.D.; Soole, K.L.; Perkins, M.V.; Dennis, E.G.; Keyzers, R.A.; Kalua, C.M.; Boss, P.K. Two O-methyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of methoxypyrazines: Grape-derived aroma compounds important to wine flavour. Plant Mol. Biol. 2010, 74, 77–89.
  49. Guillaumie, S.; Ilg, A.; Réty, S.; Brette, M.; Trossat-Magnin, C.; Decroocq, S.; Léon, C.; Keime, C.; Ye, T.; Baltenweck-Guyot, R.; et al. Genetic analysis of the biosynthesis of 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine, a major grape-derived aroma compound impacting wine quality. Plant Physiol. 2013, 162, 604–615.
  50. Sala, C.; Busto, O.; Guasch, J.; Zamora, F. Influence of vine training and sunlight exposure on the 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines content in musts and wines from the Vitis vinifera variety Cabernet sauvignon. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 3492–3497.
  51. Darriet, P.; Thibon, C.; Dubourdieu, D. Aroma and aroma precursors in grape berry. Biochem. Grape Berry 2012, 26, 111–136.
  52. Lei, Y.; Xie, S.; Chen, H.; Guan, X.; Zhang, Z. Behavior of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine biosynthesis related to proposed precursor and intermediate in wine grape. Food Chem. 2019, 277, 609–616.
  53. Koch, A.; Doyle, C.L.; Matthews, M.A.; Williams, L.E.; Ebeler, S.E. 2-Methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine in grape berries and its dependence on genotype. Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 2190–2198.
  54. Gregan, S.M.; Jordan, B. Methoxypyrazine Accumulation and O-Methyltransferase Gene Expression in Sauvignon blanc Grapes: The Role of Leaf Removal, Light Exposure, and Berry Development. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 2200–2208.
  55. Imelda, R.; Pan, B.S.; Sacks, G.L. Rapid measurement of 3-Alkyl-2-methoxypyrazine content of winegrapes to predict levels in resultant wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 8250–8257.
  56. Hashizume, K.; Samuta, T. Grape maturity and light exposure affect berry methoxypyrazine concentration. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1999, 50, 194–198.
  57. Kalua, C.M.; Boss, P.K. Evolution of volatile compounds during the development of cabernet sauvignon grapes (Vitis vinifera L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 3818–3830.
  58. Oliveira, J.M.; Faria, M.; Sá, F.; Barros, F.; Araújo, I.M. C6-alcohols as varietal markers for assessment of wine origin. Anal. Chim. Acta 2006, 563, 300–309.
  59. Fang, Y.; Qian, M.C. Development of C6 and other volatile compounds in pinot noir grapes determined by stir bar sorptive extraction-GC-MS. In Flavor Chemistry of Wine and Other Alcoholic Beverages; Proceedings of the ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; Volume 1104.
  60. Salifu, R.; Zhang, Z.; Sam, F.E.; Li, J.; Ma, T.-Z.; Wang, J.; Han, S.-Y.; Jiang, Y.-M. Application of different fertilizers to cabernet sauvignon vines: Effects on grape aroma accumulation. J. Berry Res. 2021, Pre-press, 1–17.
  61. D’Onofrio, C.; Matarese, F.; Cuzzola, A. Effect of methyl jasmonate on the aroma of Sangiovese grapes and wines. Food Chem. 2018, 242, 352–361.
  62. Less, H.; Galili, G. Principal transcriptional programs regulating plant amino acid metabolism in response to abiotic stresses. Plant Physiol. 2008, 147, 316–330.
  63. Yue, X.; Ju, Y.; Tang, Z.; Zhao, Y.; Jiao, X.; Zhang, Z. Effects of the severity and timing of basal leaf removal on the amino acids profiles of Sauvignon Blanc grapes and wines. J. Integr. Agric. 2019, 18, 2052–2062.
  64. Häusler, R.E.; Ludewig, F.; Krueger, S. Amino acids-A life between metabolism and signaling. Plant Sci. 2014, 229, 225–237.
  65. Szabados, L.; Savouré, A. Proline: A multifunctional amino acid. Trends Plant Sci. 2010, 15, 89–97.
  66. Fagard, M.; Launay, A.; Clément, G.; Courtial, J.; Dellagi, A.; Farjad, M.; Krapp, A.; Soulié, M.C.; Masclaux-Daubresse, C. Nitrogen metabolism meets phytopathology. J. Exp. Bot. 2014, 65, 5643–5656.
  67. Garde-Cerdán, T.; Portu, J.; López, R.; Santamaría, P. Effect of methyl jasmonate application to grapevine leaves on grape amino acid content. Food Chem. 2016, 203, 536–539.
  68. Bell, S.J.; Henschke, P.A. Implications of nitrogen nutrition for grapes, fermentation and wine. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2005, 11, 242–295.
  69. Bruwer, F.A.; du Toit, W.; Buica, A. Nitrogen and sulphur foliar fertilisation. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2019, 40, 1–16.
  70. Lasa, B.; Menendez, S.; Sagastizabal, K.; Muro, J.; Idoia, P.M.A. Foliar application of urea to ‘“ Sauvignon Blanc ”’ and ‘“ Merlot ”’ vines: Doses and time of application. Plant Growth Regul. 2012, 67, 73–81.
  71. Linsenmeier, A.W.; Loos, U.; Löhnertz, O. Must composition and nitrogen uptake in a long-term trial as affected by timing of nitrogen fertilization in a cool-climate riesling vineyard. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2008, 59, 255–264.
  72. Gutiérrez-gamboa, G.; Garde-cerdán, T.; Gonzalo-diago, A.; Martínez-gil, A.M. Effect of different foliar nitrogen applications on the must amino acids and glutathione composition in Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2016; 75, 147–154.
  73. Garde-Cerdán, T.; López, R.; Portu, J.; González-Arenzana, L.; López-Alfaro, I.; Santamaría, P. Study of the effects of proline, phenylalanine, and urea foliar application to Tempranillo vineyards on grape amino acid content. Comparison with commercial nitrogen fertilisers. Food Chem. 2014, 163, 136–141.
  74. Garde-Cerdán, T.; Lorenzo, C.; Lara, J.F.; Prado, F.; Ancin-Azpilicueta, C.; Salinas, M.R. Study of the Evolution of Nitrogen Compounds during Grape Ripening. Application to Differentiate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 2410–2419.
  75. Kliewer, W.M. Free Amino Acids and Other Nitrogenous Fractions in Wine Grapes. J. Food Sci. 1970, 35, 17–21.
  76. Kliewer, W.M. Changes in the concentration of free amino acids in grape berries during maturation. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1968, 19, 166–174.
  77. Guan, L.; Wu, B.; Hilbert, G.; Li, S.; Gomès, E.; Delrot, S.; Dai, Z. Cluster shading modifies amino acids in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries in a genotype- and tissue-dependent manner. Food Res. Int. 2017, 98, 2–9.
  78. Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G.; Garde-Cerdán, T.; Portu, J.; Moreno-Simunovic, Y.; Martínez-Gil, A.M. Foliar nitrogen application in Cabernet Sauvignon vines: Effects on wine flavonoid and amino acid content. Food Res. Int. 2017, 96, 46–53.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Food Science & Technology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : Faisal Sam , Rafia Salifu ,
, Yumei Jiang
View Times: 808
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 24 May 2022
Table of Contents
    Notice
    You are not a member of the advisory board for this topic. If you want to update advisory board member profile, please contact office@encyclopedia.pub.
    OK
    Confirm
    Only members of the Encyclopedia advisory board for this topic are allowed to note entries. Would you like to become an advisory board member of the Encyclopedia?
    Yes
    No
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    There is no comment~
    ${ textCharacter }/${ maxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    ${ selectedItem.replyTextCharacter }/${ selectedItem.replyMaxCharacter }
    Submit
    Cancel
    Confirm
    Are you sure to Delete?
    Yes No
    Academic Video Service
    Feedback