Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Hebah AL Ubeed
 + 1702 word(s) 1702 2022-03-07 03:27:14 |
2 format correction
Peter Tang
 Meta information modification 1702 2022-03-08 09:27:20 | |
3 move out of the EC
Peter Tang
 Meta information modification 1702 2022-03-08 09:28:13 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Al Ubeed, H. Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20316 (accessed on 22 December 2024).
Al Ubeed H. Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20316. Accessed December 22, 2024.
Al Ubeed, Hebah. "Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20316 (accessed December 22, 2024).
Al Ubeed, H. (2022, March 08). Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20316
Al Ubeed, Hebah. "Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products." Encyclopedia. Web. 08 March, 2022.
Post-Harvest Operations to Generate High-Quality Medicinal Cannabis Products
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules27051719

Cannabis has been a traditional medicinal herb in central Asia, with reports of such usage back to 4700 B.P. in China, India, Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. It is now also cultivated and used as a drug crop in at least 172 countries and territories worldwide. It is classified as Cannabis Sativa, C. Indica and C. Ruderalis based on genetics, phenotypic properties and chemical structure. The Cannabis industry is rapidly growing; therefore, there is no medicinal cannabis that can be produced without optimising drying methods. Producing high-quality medical products have been a hot topic in recent years.

Cannabis medicinal Cannabis cannabinoids drying technology post-harvest

1. Introduction

Cannabis has been a traditional medicinal herb in central Asia [1], with reports of such usage back to 4700 B.P. in China, India, Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome [1]. It is now also cultivated and used as a drug crop in at least 172 countries and territories worldwide [2]. It is classified as Cannabis Sativa, C. Indica and C. Ruderalis based on genetics, phenotypic properties and chemical structure [3]. All the classes have medicinal cannabinoids compounds, but in different proportions. For instance, Cannabis Sativa has a high level of Cannabidiol (CBD), while C. Indica and Rudelaris have high and low levels of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) respectively [3][4][5].
Aizpurua-Olaizola, et al. [6] listed 554 compounds identified in Cannabis plants, including 125 cannabinoids and 198 non-cannabinoid compounds like phenols and flavonoids, terpenes and alkaloids [7][8]. Cannabinoids are the active medicinal constituents against the development of numerous conditions. CBD has therapeutic activity against antipsychotic, anti depressive, anxiolytic, antiepileptic, anti spasticity and anti-inflammatory, stroke and hypoxic-ischemic, spinal cord injury, rheumatoid arthritis and various types of cancer, such as brain, blood, breast, lung, prostate and colon [9][10][11][12][13][14]. However, THC is well-documented having anti-inflammatory effects, including for arthritic and inflammatory conditions [15], Alzheimer’s disease [16], Parkinson’s [17] and diabetes [18]. However, cannabigerol (CBG) and cannabichromene (CBC) have antibacterial and antifungal effects [19], and can act as antidepressants [20]. In contrast, cannabinol (CBN) has a potential effect on insomnia and sleep disorder [21].
Production of cannabinoids in Cannabis is mainly derived from cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), or the mother of the Cannabis via co-enzyme Olivetolate geranyl transferase such as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) or cannabichromene acid synthase (CBCAS) [22], to produce tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), and oxidation of THCA to produce cannabinolic acid (CBNA) in the resin glands or trichomes [23][24]. Then these naturally cannebinoids acids are converted via decarboxylation, which removes the carboxylic acid functional group from the cannabinoids via drying, heating or combustion to produce CBD, CBC, CBG and oxidation THC to Delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) and CBN [25][26][27] (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Structures of major components in the medicinal Cannabis. cannabigerolic acid, CBGA; tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, THCAS; cannabidiolic acid synthase, CBDAS; cannabichromene acid synthase, CBCAS; tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, THCA; cannabidiolic acid, CBDA; cannabichromenic acid, CBCA; cannabinolic acid, CBNA; cannabichromene, CBC; cannabidiol, CBD; cannabigerol, CBG; cannabinol, CBN; and tetrahydrocannabinol, THC.
Medicinal Cannabis has traditionally been used to treat various illnesses using different plant parts [28]. According to Jin, et al. [29], leaves are rich in cannabinoids (1.10–2.10%), terpenoids (0.13–0.28%) and flavonoids (0.34–0.44%). The seed oil is mostly used in Arab and Chinese medicine [30][31]. However, a product derived from seed and its concentration still required further study [32]. In addition, a recent study by Lima, et al. [33] reported no spasmolytic effect, no toxicity effect and reduction in edema formation at all tested doses (12.5, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) of aqueous extract of Cannabis Sativa roots (CsAqEx) on the airway smooth muscle in mice. In modern medicine, however, Cannabis female inflorescence is the most used part of the plant, and contains the highest concentration of different cannabinoids and active terpenes [34]. C. Sativa species regulated the cell death in the plant via accumulated cannabinoids in the glands above the leaf [35]. Over 300 years, the functions of these glands have been well known as either attracting pollinators or protecting against pathology. However, Cannabis glands contributed additional functions as death capsules [36][37]. These cannabinoids result from secondary metabolism in Cannabis [38]. Cannabinoids accumulate where death happens in the plant tissue [39]. Cannabinoid resin causes necrotic and apoptotic cells through DNA degradation mediated by caspase-dependent nuclease and catalysed by nuclease released from mitochondrial during action mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) [39]. Secretion of these cannabinoids or treating the plant with these cannabinoids will stimulate the defense system during the initial and late stages of the leaf senescence [36][37]. Another significant benefit is to fulfil the requirement for the completed growth cycle and eventually develop the seeds in the medicinal Cannabis [36]. In general, senescence happens during all growing cycles, and then ultimately leads to death [40]. This death plays an essential role in diverse physiological actions, including root cap, stomatic embryogenesis, xylogenesis, leaf senescence and defense against microbial pathogens and abiotic stresses [41]. Due to secondary metabolites, changes in the active compounds like THCA and THC led to altered chemical composition [38][42].

2. Harvesting of Cannabis

There is a significant difference in the potency, quality and content of cannabinoids and terpenes between unripe and ripe buds [26][43][44]. When the bud is ripe, it is the best time to harvest Cannabis [44]. Therefore, daily bud inspections and extra time to harvest will feature multiple harvesting sessions to ensure the finest harvest and best quality to process medicinal Cannabis [43]. The following section will explain how to determine the time to harvest and the best harvesting technology.

2.1. Determining the Time to Harvest

Daily observation of the flower is required to determine when caps swell with resin and trichomes become more prominent, liquid accumulates and stand erect and sticky [43][45][46]. Maximum cannabinoid composition occurs when the trichomes’ colour changes into white, cloudy or milky, instead of the clear colour as shown in Figure 2. The buds then produce high THC [43][45][47][48].
Figure 2. Morphological appearance of white or milky trichome of medicinal Cannabis.
When the pastel hair colour turns to 75% light brown or amber, then inflorescences are ready for the harvest with a total CBD peak of 8.73% [49][50][51]. However, once the trichome starts looking grey and much of the THC has already degraded to CBN, the harvest time has passed, and the effects of the buds will be sleepy without any psychoactive effects [47][48][49]. Another method that has been used to determine the best time for the harvest of medicinal Cannabis is examining the physical appearance and budding mass by a digital microscope, 60× magnification via UV and LED light, magnifying glass and photographerloupe [43][48][52]. When the Cannabis is small, all the buds ripen simultaneously, but when the plant is larger, the first 3–6 inches of buds ripen before the inner buds [50]. In general, commercial harvest occurs after plants grow for 8–9 weeks, depending on the strain [46][50][53][54].

2.2. Harvesting Technology

The harvesting process happens when the medicinal Cannabis is in full flourishing [55][56][57]. In general, the manual process is the only way that has been used to harvest medicinal Cannabis without damage and produce high-grade flowers [58][59][60].
However, mechanical harvesting like rotary mowers and combined harvesting are used mainly for high-stalk bast-fibre like hemp [58][61][62][63][64]. In general, a manual process is repeatable, low risk and maintains the crop’s quality [65].
Trimming the flower shortly after harvest is especially extensive for a high-grade whole flower of medicinal Cannabis [65]. All tools used during harvesting should be purified or sterilised [66]. There are four steps for trimming or manicuring ripe Cannabis, including clipping then cut-off the buds from the stem. After that, snip away the more minor, multi-fin leaves surrounding the buds [48][67]. The bud, after this step, should look naked and only a couple of the leaves stick between the flowers, and these leaves must be clipped off from the petiole parts [43]. The final steps before the drying are the wet trimming process, which includes removing the fan leaves, sugar leaves and any other extraneous parts of the plant, and collecting only manicured buds [43][68]. Different drying techniques have been applied for the drying of phytochemicals, and are summarised in Table 1 and further discussed in Section 3.
Table 1. Drying techniques for medicinal Cannabis buds.

Drying Technique

Drying Conditions/Procedures

Advantages and Disadvantage

References

Hot Air Drying

The plant materials were hanged on either string lines, wire cages, or static wires upside-down to allow for air circulation and uniform drying by control system has been set between 18–21 °C, relative humidity at 50–55% and air circulation using a small fan under these controlled conditions. Trimmed flowers take only 4–5 days, but the whole plant takes up to 14 days.

A simple technique, but required regularly maintain optimal conditions.

[53][69][70][71][72]

Oven Drying

Buds were hanging upside down in the oven and oven must be preheated at 37 °C for 24 h to prevent decarboxylation for Phyto cannabinoids

A simple technique, but under optimal conditions and difficult for commercial production.

[69][72][73]

Microwave-assisted hot air-drying

Samples were dried by applied volumetric heating and creating a temperature gradient and standard microwaves frequency set at 915 MHz and 240 W to maintain high-quality medicinal cannabis

An advanced technique, but under optimal conditions.

[74][75][76]

Vacuum Freeze-Drying

Vacuum freezing the cannabis bud by reducing the temperature to approximately −40 °C before drying the buds to retain a high quality of phytochemicals.

Quite effective and most suitable advanced technique, but prohibitive operational cost.

[77][78][79][80][81]

Microwave-Assisted Freeze Drying

Circulates cold, dry air over the frozen material at a temperature below −40 °C to −45 °C, pressure at 100 Pa, microwave frequency 2450 MHz.

An advanced technique, but under optimal conditions.

[70][82][83][84]

3. Drying of Cannabis

Many factors control the post-harvest quality. For instance, microbial activity, moisture content, room temperature, duration and light affect the quality and sustainability of medicinal Cannabis [85][86], so few techniques have been developed to preserve the original phytocannabinoid and terpenoid contents [87]. The most effective technique is drying, as Cannabis contains approximately 80% water. Benefits from drying include controlling microbial activity and enabling long-term storage while maintaining potency, taste and medicinal properties [69]. Most growers and commercial processors predicate the product is dry based on texture and crispness, while having only 11% w/w of moisture [70][88]. Any change in drying conditions may cause decarboxylation of acidic cannabinoids, loss of terpenes and reduced product quality [44]. Studies by ElSohly, Radwan, Gul, Chandra and Galal [89] and Taschwer and Schmid [85] found that the best way to avoid poor drying problems via a selection of drying techniques depending on the strain’s chemical profile, drying behaviour and the end product requirements. Several drying methods have been used to dry the flowers of Cannabis, including hot air drying, oven drying, vacuum freeze-drying, atmospheric freeze-drying and microwave-assisted drying. Drying techniques for medicinal Cannabis buds are summarised in Table 1.

References

  1. Abel, E.L. Cannabis in the ancient world. In Marihuana the First Twelve Thousand Years; Springer Science & Business Media: Boston, MA, USA, 1980; pp. 3–35.
  2. UNODC. World Drug Report; United Nations Publication: Vienna, Austria, 2008; pp. 95–111.
  3. Small, E.; Jui, P.Y.; Lefkovitch, L.P. A numerical taxonomic analysis of cannabis with special reference to species delimitation. Syst. Bot. 1976, 1, 67–84.
  4. Small, E. Evolution and classification of Cannabis sativa (marijuana, hemp) in relation to human utilisation. Bot. Rev. 2015, 81, 189–294.
  5. Schultes, R.E.; Klein, W.M.; Plowman, T.; Lockwood, T.E. Cannabis: An example of taxonomic neglect. Cannabis Cult. 1975, 23, 21–38.
  6. Aizpurua-Olaizola, O.; Soydaner, U.; Öztürk, E.; Schibano, D.; Simsir, Y.; Navarro, P.; Etxebarria, N.; Usobiaga, A. Evolution of the cannabinoid and terpene content during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants from different chemotypes. J. Nat. Prod. 2016, 79, 324–331.
  7. Booth, J.K.; Bohlmann, J. Terpenes in Cannabis sativa–from plant genome to humans. Plant Sci. 2019, 284, 67–72.
  8. AL Ubeed, H.M.S.; Bhuyan, D.J.; Alsherbiny, M.A.; Basu, A.; Vuong, Q.V. A comprehensive review on the techniques for extraction of bioactive compounds from medicinal cannabis. Molecules 2022, 27, 604.
  9. Rong, C.; Lee, Y.; Carmona, N.E.; Cha, D.S.; Ragguett, R.-M.; Rosenblat, J.D.; Mansur, R.B.; Ho, R.C.; McIntyre, R.S. Cannabidiol in medical marijuana: Research vistas and potential opportunities. Pharmacol. Res. 2017, 121, 213–218.
  10. Mohammed, N.; Ceprian, M.; Jimenez, L.; Ruth Pazos, M.; Martínez-Orgado, J. Neuroprotective effects of cannabidiol in hypoxic ischemic insult. The therapeutic window in newborn mice. CNS Neurol. Disord.-Drug Targets 2017, 16, 102–108.
  11. Kwiatkoski, M.; Guimaraes, F.S.; Del-Bel, E. Cannabidiol-treated rats exhibited higher motor score after cryogenic spinal cord injury. Neurotox. Res. 2012, 21, 271–280.
  12. Malfait, A.; Gallily, R.; Sumariwalla, P.; Malik, A.; Andreakos, E.; Mechoulam, R.; Feldmann, M. The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 9561–9566.
  13. Singh, K.; Nassar, N.; Bachari, A.; Schanknecht, E.; Telukutla, S.; Zomer, R.; Piva, T.J.; Mantri, N. The pathophysiology and the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in prostate cancer. Cancers 2021, 13, 4107.
  14. Morales, P.; Jagerovic, N. Antitumor cannabinoid chemotypes: Structural insights. Front. Pharmacol. 2019, 10, 621.
  15. Schley, M.; Legler, A.; Skopp, G.; Schmelz, M.; Konrad, C.; Rukwied, R. Delta-9-thc based monotherapy in fibromyalgia patients on experimentally induced pain, axon reflex flare and pain relief. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 2006, 22, 1269–1276.
  16. Eubanks, L.M.; Rogers, C.J.; Beuscher IV, A.E.; Koob, G.F.; Olson, A.J.; Dickerson, T.J.; Janda, K.D. A molecular link between the active component of marijuana and alzheimer’s disease pathology. Mol. Pharm. 2006, 3, 773–777.
  17. Zeissler, M.-L.; Eastwood, J.; McCorry, K.; Hanemann, C.O.; Zajicek, J.P.; Carroll, C.B. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol protects against mpp+ toxicity in sh-sy5y cells by restoring proteins involved in mitochondrial biogenesis. Oncotarget 2016, 7, 46603.
  18. Rajavashisth, T.B.; Shaheen, M.; Norris, K.C.; Pan, D.; Sinha, S.K.; Ortega, J.; Friedman, T.C. Decreased prevalence of diabetes in marijuana users: Cross-sectional data from the national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes) iii. BMJ Open 2012, 2, e000494.
  19. Eisohly, H.N.; Turner, C.E.; Clark, A.M.; Eisohly, M.A. Synthesis and antimicrobial activities of certain cannabichromene and cannabigerol related compounds. J. Pharm. Sci. 1982, 71, 1319–1323.
  20. Shinjyo, N.; Di Marzo, V. The effect of cannabichromene on adult neural stem/progenitor cells. Neurochem. Int. 2013, 63, 432–437.
  21. Usami, N.; Kobana, K.; Yoshida, H.; Kimura, T.; Watanabe, K.; Yoshimura, H.; Yamamoto, I. Synthesis and pharmacological activities in mice of halogenated δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol derivatives. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1998, 46, 1462–1467.
  22. Fellermeier, M.; Zenk, M.H. Prenylation of olivetolate by a hemp transferase yields cannabigerolic acid, the precursor of tetrahydrocannabinol. FEBS Lett. 1998, 427, 283–285.
  23. Sirikantaramas, S.; Morimoto, S.; Shoyama, Y.; Ishikawa, Y.; Wada, Y.; Shoyama, Y.; Taura, F. The gene controlling marijuana psychoactivity: Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of δ1-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase from Cannabis sativa L. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 39767–39774.
  24. Taura, F.; Morimoto, S.; Shoyama, Y.; Mechoulam, R. First direct evidence for the mechanism of. Delta. 1-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid biosynthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 9766–9767.
  25. Gagne, S.J.; Stout, J.M.; Liu, E.; Boubakir, Z.; Clark, S.M.; Page, J.E. Identification of olivetolic acid cyclase from Cannabis sativa reveals a unique catalytic route to plant polyketides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 12811–12816.
  26. Thomas, B.F.; Elsohly, M. The botany of Cannabis sativa L. In The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis: Quality Assessment, Assurance and Regulation of Medicinal Marijuana and Cannabinoid Preparations; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2015; pp. 1–22.
  27. Radwan, M.M.; Chandra, S.; Gul, S.; ElSohly, M.A. Cannabinoids, phenolics, terpenes and alkaloids of cannabis. Molecules 2021, 26, 2774.
  28. Petrovska, B. Historical review of medicinal plants’ usage. Pharmacogn. Rev. 2012, 6, 1–5.
  29. Jin, D.; Dai, K.; Xie, Z.; Chen, J. Secondary metabolites profiled in cannabis inflorescences, leaves, stem barks and roots for medicinal purposes. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 3309.
  30. Lozano, I. The therapeutic use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in arabic medicine. J. Cannabis Ther. 2001, 1, 63–70.
  31. Stuart, G.; Smith, F. Part 1 vegetable kingdom. In Chinese Materia Medica; American Presbyterian Mission Press: Shanghai, China, 1911.
  32. Balant, M.; Gras, A.; Ruz, M.; Vallès, J.; Vitales, D.; Garnatje, T. Traditional uses of cannabis: An analysis of the cannuse database. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2021, 279, 114362.
  33. Lima, K.S.B.; da Cruz Silva, M.E.G.; de Lima Araújo, T.C.; da Fonseca Silva, C.P.; Santos, B.L.; de Araújo Ribeiro, L.A.; Menezes, P.M.N.; Silva, M.G.; Lavor, É.M.; Silva, F.S. Cannabis roots: Pharmacological and toxicological studies in mice. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2021, 271, 113868.
  34. Minghetti, P.; Marini, V.; Zaccara, V.; Casiraghi, A. Regulation for prescribing and dispensing system of cannabis: The italian case. Curr. Bioact. Compd. 2019, 15, 196–200.
  35. Sirikantaramas, S.; Taura, F.; Tanaka, Y.; Ishikawa, Y.; Morimoto, S.; Shoyama, Y. Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, the enzyme controlling marijuana psychoactivity, is secreted into the storage cavity of the glandular trichomes. Plant Cell Physiol. 2005, 46, 1578–1582.
  36. Morimoto, S.; Tanaka, Y.; Sasaki, K.; Tanaka, H.; Fukamizu, T.; Shoyama, Y.; Shoyama, Y.; Taura, F. Identification and characterisation of cannabinoids that induce cell death through mitochondrial permeability transition in cannabis leaf cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282, 20739–20751.
  37. Lam, E.; Kato, N.; Lawton, M. Programmed cell death, mitochondria and the plant hypersensitive response. Nature 2001, 411, 848–853.
  38. Mechoulam, R. Marihuana chemistry: Recent advances in cannabinoid chemistry open the area to more sophisticated biological research. Science 1970, 168, 1159–1166.
  39. Balk, J.; Chew, S.K.; Leaver, C.J.; McCabe, P.F. The intermembrane space of plant mitochondria contains a dnase activity that may be involved in programmed cell death. Plant J. 2003, 34, 573–583.
  40. Matile, P. Chloroplast senescence. In Crop Photosynthesis: Spatial Temporal Determinants; Baker, N.R., Thomas, H.C., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1992; Volume 12, pp. 413–440.
  41. Baines, C.P.; Kaiser, R.A.; Purcell, N.H.; Blair, N.S.; Osinska, H.; Hambleton, M.A.; Brunskill, E.W.; Sayen, M.R.; Gottlieb, R.A.; Dorn, G.W. Loss of cyclophilin d reveals a critical role for mitochondrial permeability transition in cell death. Nature 2005, 434, 658–662.
  42. Gaoni, Y.; Mechoulam, R. Isolation, structure and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 1646–1647.
  43. Rosenthal, E. Harvest and beyond In Ed Rosenthal’s Marijuana Grower’s Handbook: Your Complete Guide for Medical & Personal Marijuana Cultivation; Angela Bacca, H.L., Johnson-Igra, D., Eds.; Quick American Publishing: Oakland, CA, USA, 2010; pp. 393–411.
  44. Jin, D.; Jin, S.; Chen, J. Cannabis indoor growing conditions, management practices and post-harvest treatment: A review. Am. J. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 925.
  45. Xiao, K.; Mao, X.; Lin, Y.; Xu, H.; Zhu, Y.; Cai, Q.; Xie, H.; Zhang, J. Trichome, a functional diversity phenotype in plant. Mol. Biol. 2017, 6, 183.
  46. Clarke, R.; Merlin, M. Ethnobotanical origins, early cultivation and evolution through human selection. In Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany; University of California Press: London, UK, 2016; pp. 29–57.
  47. Upton, R.; ElSohly, M.; Craker, L.; Romm, A.; Russo, E.; Sexton, M. Commercial sources and handling. In Cannabis Inflorescence: CANNABIS spp.: Standards of Identity, Analysis and Quality Control; American Herbal Pharmacopoeia: Soquel, CA, USA, 2013; pp. 18–33.
  48. Rosenthal, E.; Downs, D. Marijuana Harvest: How to Maximize Quality and Yield in Your Cannabis Garden, illustrated ed.; Quick American: Piedmont: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2017.
  49. Tettey, J. Description of the cannabis plant and illicit cannabis products. In Recommended Methods for the Identification and Analysis of Cannabis and Cannabis Products; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: New York, NY, USA, 2009; p. 60.
  50. Crispim Massuela, D.; Hartung, J.; Munz, S.; Erpenbach, F.; Graeff-Hönninger, S. Impact of harvest time and pruning technique on total cbd concentration and yield of medicinal cannabis. Plants 2022, 11, 140.
  51. Jin, D.; Henry, P.; Shan, J.; Chen, J. Identification of chemotypic markers in three chemotype categories of cannabis using secondary metabolites profiled in inflorescences, leaves, stem bark and roots. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 699530.
  52. Bergman, R. Harvesting. In The Marijuana Grow Bible; Amazon Digital Services LLC-Kdp Print Us: Seattle, WA, USA, 2019; pp. 52–58.
  53. Chandra, S.; Lata, H.; ElSohly, M.A.; Walker, L.A.; Potter, D. Cannabis cultivation: Methodological issues for obtaining medical-grade product. Epilepsy Behav. 2017, 70, 302–312.
  54. Clarke, R.C. Maturation and harvesting of cannabis In Marijuana Botany: An Advanced Study: The Propagation and Breeding of Distinctive Cannabis; Ronin Publishing: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1981; pp. 60–78.
  55. Vogelmann, A.F.; Turner, J.C.; Mahlberg, P.G. Cannabinoid composition in seedlings compared to adult plants of Cannabis sativa. J. Nat. Prod. 1988, 51, 1075–1079.
  56. Pacifico, D.; Miselli, F.; Carboni, A.; Moschella, A.; Mandolino, G. Time course of cannabinoid accumulation and chemotype development during the growth of Cannabis sativa L. Euphytica 2008, 160, 231–240.
  57. De Backer, B.; Maebe, K.; Verstraete, A.G.; Charlier, C. Evolution of the content of thc and other major cannabinoids in drug-type cannabis cuttings and seedlings during growth of plants. J. Forensic Sci. 2012, 57, 918–922.
  58. Davidson, M.; Reed, S.; Oosthuizen, J.; O’Donnell, G.; Gaur, P.; Cross, M.; Dennis, G. Occupational health and safety in cannabis production: An australian perspective. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 2018, 24, 75–85.
  59. Zhang, J.-Q.; Chen, S.-L.; Wei, G.-F.; Ning, K.; Wang, C.-Q.; Wang, L.; Chen, H.; Dong, L.-L. Cultivars breeding and production of non-psychoactive medicinal cannabis with high cbd content. China J. Chin. Mater. Med. 2019, 44, 4772–4780.
  60. Russo, E.B.; Jiang, H.-E.; Li, X.; Sutton, A.; Carboni, A.; Del Bianco, F.; Mandolino, G.; Potter, D.J.; Zhao, Y.-X.; Bera, S. Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from central asia. J. Exp. Bot. 2008, 59, 4171–4182.
  61. Shen, C.; Zhang, B.; Huang, J.; Tian, K.; Liu, H.; Li, X.; Yin, G. Research status and suggestions of mechanical harvesting technology for high-stalk bast-fiber crops. Int. Agric. Eng. J. 2020, 29, 269–284.
  62. Fike, J. Industrial hemp: Renewed opportunities for an ancient crop. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2016, 35, 406–424.
  63. Sausserde, R.; Adamovics, A.; Ivanovs, S.; Bulgakov, V. Investigations into growing and harvesting industrial hemp. J. Res. Appl. Agric. Eng. 2013, 58, 150–154.
  64. Cheng, S.; Bin, Z.; Xianwang, L.; Guodong, Y.; Qiaomin, C.; Chunhua, X. Bench cutting tests and analysis for harvesting hemp stalk. Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 2017, 10, 56–67.
  65. Rodriguez, G.; Munir, Z. Good manufacturing practices (gmp) approach to post-harvest activities for cannabis. J GXP Compl 2019, 23, 6.
  66. Ilikj, M.; Brchina, I.; Ugrinova, L.; Karcev, V.; Grozdanova, A. Gmp/gacp-new standards for quality assurance of cannabis. Maced. Pharm. Bull. 2021, 66, 91–101.
  67. Farag, S.; Kayser, O. Cultivation and breeding of Cannabis sativa L. For preparation of standardised extracts for medicinal purposes. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 165–186.
  68. Green, G.; Kryptonite, S.; Chimera, B.; Ralpheme, R. Harvesting and Curing Your Bud in the Cannabis Grow Bible, 4th ed.; Green Candy Press: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2001; pp. 280–284.
  69. Hawes, M.D.; Cohen, M.R. Method of Drying Cannabis Materials. U.S. Patent 20150096189A1, 9 April 2015. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150096189A1/en (accessed on 2 March 2022).
  70. Challa, S.K.R.; Misra, N.; Martynenko, A. Drying of cannabis—State of the practices and future needs. Dry. Technol. 2021, 39, 2055–2064.
  71. Ross, S.A.; ElSohly, M.A. The volatile oil composition of fresh and air-dried buds of Cannabis sativa. J. Nat. Prod. 1996, 59, 49–51.
  72. Coffman, C.; Gentner, W. Cannabis sativa L.: Effect of drying time and temperature on cannabinoid profile of stored leaf tissue. Bull. Narc. 1974, 26, 68–70.
  73. Turner, J.C.; Mahlberg, P.G. Effects of sample treatment on chromatographic analysis of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. (cannabaceae). J. Chromatogr. A 1984, 283, 165–171.
  74. Dev, S.; Geetha, P.; Orsat, V.; Gariépy, Y.; Raghavan, G. Effects of microwave-assisted hot air drying and conventional hot air drying on the drying kinetics, color, rehydration and volatiles of moringa oleifera. Dry. Technol. 2011, 29, 1452–1458.
  75. Chasiotis, V.; Tsakirakis, A.; Termentzi, A.; Machera, K.; Filios, A. Drying and quality characteristics of Cannabis sativa L. Inflorescences under constant and time-varying convective drying temperature schemes. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2022, 28, 101076.
  76. Kwaśnica, A.; Pachura, N.; Masztalerz, K.; Figiel, A.; Zimmer, A.; Kupczyński, R.; Wujcikowska, K.; Carbonell-Barrachina, A.A.; Szumny, A.; Różański, H. Volatile composition and sensory properties as quality attributes of fresh and dried hemp flowers (Cannabis sativa L.). Foods 2020, 9, 1118.
  77. Tang, X.C.; Pikal, M.J. Design of freeze-drying processes for pharmaceuticals: Practical advice. Pharm. Res. 2004, 21, 191–200.
  78. Tambunan, A.; Yudistira; Kisdiyani; Hernani. Freeze drying characteristics of medicinal herbs. Dry. Technol. 2001, 19, 325–331.
  79. Kasper, J.C.; Friess, W. The freezing step in lyophilisation: Physico-chemical fundamentals, freezing methods and consequences on process performance and quality attributes of biopharmaceuticals. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2011, 78, 248–263.
  80. Patel, S.M.; Doen, T.; Pikal, M.J. Determination of end point of primary drying in freeze-drying process control. Aaps Pharmscitech 2010, 11, 73–84.
  81. Mujumdar, A.S.; Woo, M.W. Effects of electric and magnetic field on freezing. In Drying Technologies for Biotechnology Pharmaceutical Applications; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2020; pp. 283–301.
  82. Duan, X.; Zhang, M.; Mujumdar, A.; Wang, R. Trends in microwave-assisted freeze drying of foods. Dry. Technol. 2010, 28, 444–453.
  83. Liapis, A.; Bruttini, R. Exergy analysis of freeze drying of pharmaceuticals in vials on trays. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2008, 51, 3854–3868.
  84. Zhang, M.; Jiang, H.; Lim, R.-X. Recent developments in microwave-assisted drying of vegetables, fruits and aquatic products—Drying kinetics and quality considerations. Dry. Technol. 2010, 28, 1307–1316.
  85. Taschwer, M.; Schmid, M.G. Determination of the relative percentage distribution of thca and δ9-thc in herbal cannabis seized in austria–impact of different storage temperatures on stability. Forensic Sci. Int. 2015, 254, 167–171.
  86. Grafström, K.; Andersson, K.; Pettersson, N.; Dalgaard, J.; Dunne, S.J. Effects of long term storage on secondary metabolite profiles of cannabis resin. Forensic Sci. Int. 2019, 301, 331–340.
  87. Milay, L.; Berman, P.; Shapira, A.; Guberman, O.; Meiri, D. Metabolic profiling of cannabis secondary metabolites for evaluation of optimal post-harvest storage conditions. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 583605.
  88. Chen, C.; Wongso, I.; Putnam, D.; Khir, R.; Pan, Z. Effect of hot air and infrared drying on the retention of cannabidiol and terpenes in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). Ind. Crops Prod. 2021, 172, 114051.
  89. ElSohly, M.A.; Radwan, M.M.; Gul, W.; Chandra, S.; Galal, A. Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L. In Phytocannabinoids; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 1–36.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Food Science & Technology; Medical Laboratory Technology
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Hebah AL Ubeed
View Times: 739
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 11 Mar 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback