Chia Seeds

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1		Maša Knez Marevci	+ 3513 word(s)	3513	2021-12-01 04:35:49

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules25010011

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a small seed that comes from an annual herbaceous plant, Salvia hispanica L. Chia seeds contain healthy ω-3 fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, dietary fiber, proteins, vitamins, and some minerals. Besides this, the seeds are an excellent source of polyphenols and antioxidants, such as caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, myricetin, quercetin, and others.

chia seed nutritional properties active compounds antioxidant activity

1. Introduction

Salvia hispanica L., also known as chia, is an annual herbaceous plant, originally from Southern Mexico and Northern Guatemala. It belongs to the order Lamiales, mint family Labiate, subfamily Nepetoideae, and genus Salvia. The genus Salvia consists of approximately 900 species, which have been widely distributed for thousands of years around several regions of the world, including Southern Africa, Central America, North and South America, and South-East Asia ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]. As reported in the literature, chia today is not only cultivated in Mexico and Guatemala, but also in Australia, Bolivia, Columbia, Peru, Argentina, America, and Europe. Nowadays, Mexico is recognized as the world’s largest chia producer ^[2].

Historical records testify that Salvia hispanica L. was used beside corn, bean, and amaranth by ancient Mesoamerican cultures—Aztecs and Mayas—in the preparation of folk medicines and food. In pre-Columbian societies, it was the second main crop after beans ^[3]. In the Aztecs communities, chia was used for food, cosmetics, and religious rituals.

Salvia hispanica L. is mainly grown for its seeds and produces white and purple flowers, which are 3 to 4 mm small and hermaphrodites. The plant itself is sensitive to daylight, it can grow up to 1 m tall, its leaves are reverse petiolate and serrated, and are 4 to 8 cm long and 3 to 5 cm wide. Chia seeds are generally very small, oval-shaped, 2 mm long, 1 to 1.5 mm wide, and less than 1 mm thick ^[2]^[5]^[6]^[9]. The color of the seed varies from black, grey, or black spotted to white. As Knez Hrnčič et al. ^[9] already reported, there is such a marginal difference between black and white Chia seeds that most consider them equal. Nutritional values are similar—protein content in black Chia seeds is 16.9% and fiber content is 32.6%. In white Chia seeds, the protein content is reported to be 16.5% and the fiber content 32.4%. A slight difference is only in morphology—white seeds are larger, thicker, and broader compared to black seeds. It is worth to mention that when black chia seeds are cultivated, around 5% to 8% of white chia seeds are grown at the same time. Cultivating only white chia seeds gives white chia seeds only.

Moreover, the plant itself can produce 500 to 600 kg seed/acre under appropriate agronomic conditions ^[3].

In recent years, Chia seeds have become one of the world’s most recognizable foods based on their nutritional properties and medicinal values ^[3]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[10]. Coorey et al. ^[11] reported that Chia is an excellent ingredient since it contains the highest known amount of α-linolenic acid and can be easily added to commercial food. It has been reported in several studies that chia seeds—due to the high percentage of fatty acids present—can be crucial for health, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity ^[3]^[6]^[12]^[13]^[14].

Furthermore, the word chia comes from the Spanish word “chian”, which means oily. According to different sources ^[1]^[10]^[15], chia is an oilseed, with a powerhouse composed of fats, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, proteins, vitamins (A, B, K, E, D), minerals, and antioxidants. The advantages of using chia seeds as a nutritional supplement are enormous—positive benefits include supporting the digestive system, promoting healthy skin, stronger bones and muscles, reducing the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and so on ^[2]^[3]^[5]^[16]. It contains a high number of polyphenolic antioxidants; the seed is free from mytoxins and it does not contain gluten ^[3].

2. Chemical Composition and Phytochemicals in Chia Seeds

The chemical composition of chia seeds have been analyzed by many researchers ^[3]^[5]^[6]^[17]. Chia seeds contain a high content of fats (30–33%), carbohydrates (26–41%), dietary fiber (18–30%), proteins (15–25%), vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants (wet basis) (Figure 1). Table 1 shows the nutritional profile of chia seeds in 100 g as stated by the National Nutrient Database of the USDA ^[18], and the comparison of its properties with other well-known cereals. Many researches on the phytochemicals have been reported, highlighting that the major constituents of chia oil are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs: α-linolenic (ALA, ω-3 fatty acid) and linoleic (LA, ω-6 fatty acid) acids) ^[10]. Chia seeds contain 39% oil (mass of dry seed), which consists up to 68% of ω-3 and 19% of ω-6 fatty acid ^[1]^[5]. The ratio between ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acid is 0.3:0.35 ^[19]. Campos et al. ^[4] and Coates and Ayerza ^[17] stated that the chemical composition of each product can vary due to different factors such as year of cultivation, environment of cultivation, and extraction method used. Coates and Ayerza ^[20] as well investigated the effect of temperature on the polyunsaturated fatty acids present in chia seeds in Argentina. Their results have shown that during seed development, from April to May, the increase of the temperature decreases the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) present. According to the source in the literature, PUFAs are essential for human health, but cannot be synthesized by the human body itself, only with diet does the human body receive them ^[21]. Furthermore, Musa Özcan et al. ^[22] investigated how microwave heating treatments at different powers are effecting the physicochemical properties of chia seeds, including phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and fatty acid composition. Results have shown that roasting chia seeds in the microwave causes changes in the chemical composition of the chia oil (such as varying the content of α-linoleic acid or caffeic acid when using different powers).

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Figure 1. Basic composition of chia seeds ^[19].

Table 1. Nutritional properties, vitamins, fatty acids, and phenolic compounds content of chia seeds and other cereals per 100 g ^[3]^[5]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31].

	Chia Seeds	Rice	Corn	Wheat	Quinoa	Amaranth
Carbohydrates (g)	42	80	74	71	64.2	71
Protein (g)	17	6.5	9.4	12.6	14.1	12.6
Fat (g)	31			1.5	1.92	1.5
Minerals (mg)
Magnesium	335	25	127	126	197	126
Phosphorus	860	115	210	288	457	288
Calcium	631	28	7	29		29
Potassium	407	115	287	363	563	363
Natrium	16	/	/	/	/	/
Other (g)	13	/	/	/	/	/
Vitamins (mg)
Vitamin A eq.	54 μg	0	214	9	0	n.d.
Vitamin E	0.5	0.11	0.49	1.01	0.63	1.19
Vitamin C	1.6	0	0	0	0	4.2
Thiamine (B1)	0.62	0.07	0.39	0.30	0.11	0.12
Riboflavin (B2)	0.17	0.05	0.20	0.12	0.11	0.2
Niacin (B3)	8.83	1.6	3.63	5.46	0.412	0.92
Fatty acid content (%)
Linolenic acid (C18:3, ω-3)	63.79	2.1	1	0.08	6.7	1.01
Linoleic acid (C18:2, ω-6)	18.89	39.7	52	0.68	56.4	0.35
Olec acid (C18:1, ω-9)	7.3	35.1	31	0.24	20.4	22.69
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1)	0.03	/	/	/	n.d.	0.08
Eicosenic acid (20:1)	n.d.	/	/	0.005	n.d.	1.49
Palmitic acid (C16:0)	7.04	20.8	13	3.02	9.7	18.59
Phenolic compunds (μg)
Caffeic acid	27	n.d.	26	40	37	0.90
Quercetin	0.17	/	/	30.1	43.3	/
Kaempferol	0.013	/	/	/	36.7	/
Daidzin	6.6	/	/	/	/	/
Glycitin	1.4	/	/	/	/	/
Genistin	3.4	/	/	/	/	/

The benefits of ω-3 fatty acid on the human body include the following: lowering the content of three glycerides and cholesterol levels, anti-inflammatory activity, cardioprotective and hepatoprotective activities, antidiabetic action, and protection against cancer, arthritis, and autoimmune disease. Meanwhile, the benefits of ω-6 include anti-inflammatory activity, anti-hypertensive, anti-thrombotic activities, and anticancer activities ^[2]^[3]^[5]^[6]^[16].

3. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity

Chia seeds and their oil contain a large number of natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols, phytosterols, carotenoids, and polyphenolic compounds. Polyphenolic compounds are the most important complexes that contribute to the antioxidant activity of chia seeds. It is well known that they have the ability to scavenge free radicals, to chelate ions, and to donate hydrogens ^[7]. Antioxidant compounds reduce the risk of chronic diseases (cancer and heart attack) and they offer protection against some disorders such as diabetes, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s disease ^[2]. ω-3 fatty acids have the capability to block calcium and sodium channel dysfunctions, which can cause hypertension, as well as improve heart rate variability and protect ventricular arrhythmia ^[32].

Antioxidant activities were also investigated by Sargi et al. ^[33] and Clau-Solis et al. ^[1]. Among the analytical techniques, for the determination of antioxidant activity, ABTS⁺ (monocationic radical from ABTS diammonium salt), DPPH (2,2-dyphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) have been applied most recently. Sargi et al. ^[33] investigated the antioxidant activity of chia seeds from Mexico and Argentina by using the above-mentioned techniques. Authors have considered that chia seeds are capable of deactivating ABTS⁺ cation radicals. The same authors also showed that chia seeds exhibit the capacity to scavenge synthetic DPPH radicals and reduce iron ions. The same results were obtained by other authors such as Clau-Solis et al. ^[1] and Reyes-Caudillo et al. ^[13]. Reyes-Caudillo et al. ^[13] investigated the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds in chia seeds. Chia seeds from two different regions in Mexico were extracted. The ABTS⁺ radical scavenging method, together with β-carotene linoleic-acid principle and phospholipid liposome peroxidation, was used in research to determine antioxidant activity, whilst Guindani et al. ^[34] used the ABTS⁺ method to determine antioxidant activity as well. Alacantara et al. ^[35] investigated antioxidant activity by the DPPH method.

Grancieri et al. ^[2] stated in their research that to investigate the specific antioxidant activity, further in vitro studies should be carried out.

Several authors investigated the positive effects of the polyphenolic compounds in chia seeds using different analytical techniques. Chemical compounds, such as caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, daidzein, etc.), have been mainly investigated by different analytical techniques, where UHPLC (ultra-high performance liquid chromatography), HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography), and UPLC (ultra-performance liquid chromatography) particularly stand out. Their biological activities vary from antioxidant, anti-aging, and anti-hypertensive to anti-cancerogenic and anti-inflammatory.

In comparing chia seeds to other cereals mentioned in this work, the antioxidant activity of rice, corn, wheat, quinoa, and amaranth have been also investigated and reported ^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40].

4. Applications of Chia Seeds and Derived Products

Over recent years, functional foods have gained remarkable consideration world-wide due to the wave of healthy lifestyle changes. Contemporarily, chia seed is used as a healthy oil supplement for humans and animals.

4.1. Food Industry

Several studies have been performed on the usage of chia seeds in the food industry. In the food industry, chia seeds can be used in different shapes: whole, ground, in the form of flour, oil, and gel ^[5]. In 2000, the US Dietary guidelines suggested that chia can be used as primary food, but in a limited amount; consumption of no more than 48 g/daily is recommended. Chia seeds can be added or mixed into biscuits, pasta, cereals, snacks, and cakes as supplements. Due to their hydrophilic properties, chia seeds can be used as substitutes for eggs and fat. They can absorb 12 times their weight in water ^[5].

Chia gel may be used as substitutes for oil or eggs in baked products. It was shown that chia oil can replace 25% of the egg in cakes ^[17].

The nutritional value of butter can be increased by mixing it with chia oil in a proportion from 6.5% to 25%, when the concentration of ω-3 fatty acid in chia fortified butter increases from 4.17% to 16.74% ^[3].

Besides, recent studies showed that mucilage from chia seeds can be used as a functional coating with improved functional properties ^[3].

4.2. Pharmaceutical Use

Bilayer emulsions have potential as delivery systems of ω-3 fatty acids from chia oil which represents a high potential in pharmaceutical applications and the food industry since the emulsions can be used directly or subjected to a drying process to obtain powders. Due to the relative ease of synthesis and economic feasibility, conventional oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions are usually the first choice considered to deliver bioactive lipids. Chia oil can be incorporated into oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions as ω-3 fatty acid delivery systems in food matrices. Sodium caseinate content and lactose addition strongly influence the stability and rheological properties of chia O/W emulsions. A moderate stability of chia O/W emulsions and Newtonian behavior is achieved by stabilization with a certain amount of emulsifier. Chia O/W emulsions have demonstrated low levels of primary and secondary oxidation products ^[41]. In the study of M. Julio and co-authors ^[42], chia bilayer O/W emulsions were obtained by applying the layer-by-layer deposition technique. It consisted of the electrostatic deposition of a positively charged chitosan on negatively charged oil droplets. These were stabilized using modified sunflower lecithins (deoiled or phosphatidylcholine-enriched) in the presence or absence of maltodextrin.

A recent study ^[43] reports that spray dried chia seed oil (CSO) microcapsules were prepared by using chia seed protein isolate (CPI), chia seed gum (CSG), and a CPI-CSG complex coacervate as shell materials. The CPI-CSG complex coacervate was found to be suitable for the delivery of CSO to the intestinal stage of digestion, since almost all the unencapsulated oil was hydrolysed, whereas only 60% of the oil encapsulated in CPI-CSG shell was hydrolysed during in vitro digestion. It is reported that the leaves of Salvia hispanica L. contain an essential oil that comprises β-caryophyllene, globulol, β-pinene, α-humoleno, and widdrol. Those compounds are believed to have strong repellent characteristics to a wide spectra spectrum of insects ^[3].

5. Therapeutic Value

Therapeutic values of chia seeds have been reported as well. Some of them are presented in Table 2. For example, cardio-protective effects have been analyzed by Munoz et al. ^[15]. Α-linolenic acid plays a significant role in the formation of some vital biochemical compounds such as leukotrienes and thromboxanes, which are connected to numerous physiological functions in the human body ^[3]. Moreover, ω-3 fatty acid has the capability of blocking calcium and sodium channels disfunctions (which can cause hypertension), improving the parasympathetic tone, and protecting ventricular arrhythmia ^[3]. Furthermore, eating Chia seeds in during pregnancy helps to develop the retina and brain of the fetus.

Table 2. Clinical studies of the therapeutic value of the chia seeds.

Aim of the Study	Clinical Setting	Study Description	Result	Reference
Assessment of the effect of Salba-chia on body weight, visceral obesity and obesity-related risk factors in overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes.	- Changes in body weight and in waist circumference, - body composition, - glycemic control, - level of C-reactive protein and obesity-related satiety hormones.	- Two parallel groups with 77 over-weight or obese patients with type 2 diabetes were evaluated.	- Significant weight loss, - reduction in waist circumference and C-reactive protein - increase of plasma adiponectin.	^[44]
Comparison of the effect of two seeds (flax (Linum usitatissimum) and Salba-chia (Salvia hispanica L.)) on postprandial glycemia and satiety scores.	Blood glucose samples and satiety ratings were collected at fasting and over 2 h postprandially.	- Fifteen healthy participants - randomized to receive a 50 g glucose challenge, alone or supplemented with either 25 g ground Salba-chia or 31.5 g flax.	- Salba-chia appears to have the ability to convert glucose into a slow-release carbohydrate - and affect satiety to a greater extent than flax (due to the higher fiber viscosity).	^[45]
Influence of Ingesting Chia Seed Oil on Human Running Performance	- A randomized (1:1 allocation, random number generator), - crossover approach, and - subjects engaged in two run-to-exhaustion trials after acute ingestion of flavored water with chia seed oil or flavored water alone (no blinding), with at least a two-week washout period.	- After providing a blood sample at 8:00 am, subjects ingested 0.5 L flavored water alone or 0.5 L water with 7 kcal kg−1 chia seed oil (random order), provided another blood sample at 8:30 am, and then started running to exhaustion. - Additional blood samples were collected immediately post- and 1 h post-exercise.	- Ingestion ofchia seed oil 30 min before running caused an increase in plasma ALA levels, - no discernable benefits for the athletes in this study.	^[46]
Effect of chia supplementation (Salvia hispanica L.) on blood pressure (BP) and its associated cardiometabolic factors.	- Hypertensive individuals of both sexes, –randomized, double-blind, experimental and placebo-controlled study.	- Nutritional assessment, -clinical BP measurement, - ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM), - collection of blood samples.	- The consumption of the chia or the placebo caused no gastrointestinal, hepatic or renal disorders, - decrease of the BP in hypertensive individuals.	^[47]
Effectiveness of milled and whole chia seed in altering disease risk factors in overweight, postmenopausal women.	- Metabolomics approach using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with multivariate statistical methods, - including principal component analysis and partial least-square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA).	- Subjects ingested 25 g chia seed or placebo supplements each day for 10 weeks, - body mass and composition, blood pressure and augmentation index, serum lipid profile, inflammation markers from fasting blood samples, plasma fatty acids, and metabolic profiling.	Ingestion of 25 g/day milled chia seed compared to whole chia seed or placebo for 10 weeks by overweight women increased plasma ALA and EPA, but had no influence on inflammation or disease risk factors using both traditional and metabolomics-based measures.	^[48]
Evaluation of the effects of a dietary pattern (DP; soy protein, nopal, chia seed, and oat) on the biochemical variables of MetS, the AUC for glucose and insulin, glucose intolerance (GI), the relationship of the presence of certain polymorphisms related to MetS, and the response to the DP.	A single-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm study.	- In the first stage, participants were instructed to consume a reduced energy diet according to (23) and a low-saturated fat and low-cholesterol diet for 2 wk (5). - During the second stage of the study, participants were randomly assigned to consume either the dietary pattern (DP) or placebo (P) in addition to the reduced energy diet for 2 mo.	- BW, BMI, and WC decreased, - no changes in the percentages of the lean or fat mass in either group after the dietary treatment.	^[49]
Assessment of Omega 3 chia seed loading as a means of Carbohydrate loading.	-CHO-loading treatments were based on the subject’s body weight and were thus isocaloric.	Comparison of the performance testing results between 2 different CHO-loading treatments	- No statistical difference between Omega 3 Chia loading and CHO loading.	^[50]

Consequently, incorporating dietary fiber and a-linolenic fatty acids into the diet makes Salba-chia a prime contender in regulating body weight and possibly other comorbidities associated with diabetes. A study of Vuksan and co-workers demonstrated that supplementing 37 g/day of Salba-chia to an isocaloric diet improved major and emerging risk factors in type 2 diabetes, suggesting its cardioprotective potential while maintaining weight. A subsequent study by the same group demonstrated that Salba-chia acutely reduced postprandial glycemia when added to a meal, and prolonged satiety. Further investigations demonstrated that a 6 month addition of Salba-chia to a calorie-restricted diet, in conjunction with the standard medical care, resulted in small, but significant, weight loss in overweight and obese participants with type 2 diabetes ^[44]. A comparison of the effect of two seeds (flax (Linum usitatissimum) and Salba-chia (Salvia hispanica L.)) on postprandial glycemia and satiety scores showed that despite the similarities in nutritional composition, Salba-chia appears to have the ability to convert glucose into a slow-release carbohydrate and affect satiety to a greater extent than flax, possibly due to the higher fiber viscosity. Fifteen healthy participants (M/F: 5/10; age: 23.9 ± 3 years; BMI: 22.2 ± 0.8 kg/m²) were randomized to receive a 50 g glucose challenge, alone or supplemented with either 25 g ground Salba-chia or 31.5 g flax, on three separate occasions. Blood glucose samples and satiety ratings were collected at fasting and over 2 h postprandially. In addition, in vitro viscosity of the beverages was assessed utilizing standard rheological methodology. Both seeds appeared to differentially alter carbohydrate metabolism and satiety, with Salba-chia having a stronger effect than flax. The 39% reduction in blood glucose iAUC (incremental area under the curve) observed for ground Salba-chia in the current study is in line with the reductions from previous studies of 35% and 42% vs. control at a comparable dose of 24 g. In contrast, ground flax has not been previously shown to affect postprandial glycemia. Though there is a slight suspicion that high fiber seeds should be promoted for their nutritional properties, the current findings suggest that the criteria for selection should also include their rheological properties rather than their absolute fiber content. Namely, viscosity is considered as a measure of the fiber’s contribution to viscosity development, independent of fiber concentration ^[45]. The consumption of chia flour is consistently able to decrease the blood pressure in hypertensive individuals, even in patients previously treated with medications in a manner similar to the patients not using medications ^[47]. Despite the reduction in lipid peroxidation as effect of chia, there was no verification whether this effect would be accompanied by increased antioxidant capacity. The effectiveness of milled and whole chia seed in altering disease risk factors in overweight, postmenopausal women was studied using a metabolomics approach. 62 overweight (body mass index 25 kg/m² and higher), nondiseased, nonsmoking, postmenopausal women, aged 49–75 years were included. The study was performed by means of analysis based on the 56 subjects who completed all phases of the study. As a prestudy, diet records and questionnaire responses to assess potential adverse effects and adherence to the supplementation regimen were administered, and again after 5 and 10 week supplementation.

The results of research performed over male Wistar rats disclosed that feeding chia seeds had a great declining effect on triglycerides and enhanced beneficial HDL cholesterol ^[51]. Additionally, feeding chia seeds resulted in a reduction of omega-6 in plasma, which consequentially resulted in a lower ω-6:ω-3 ratio and has a subsequent cardio-protective effect. The effect of feeding chia seed (50 g/day) to 12 healthy individuals for 30 days was investigated by Vertommen and co-workers. The diastolic blood pressure decreased from 66.1 to 61.5 mmHg with a significant decline in serum triglycerides, and no side effect was reported ^[18].

Other studies were carried out to investigate the therapeutic effects which demonstrate chia seeds as a potential source of several bio-active peptides, essential for the repair of damaged tissue and general well-being ^[52], as well as the control of dyslipidaemia ^[13]. Furthermore, investigations in chia seeds as an anti-inflammatory agent ^[53], antiplatelet, anti-carcinogenic, laxative, hypotensive, cardiac tonic, cardiovascular protector, treatment of anaemia, treatment of dermatitis, analgesic ^[54], antidepressant, antianxiety, vision and immune improver ^[55], and EPA and DHA improver in blood ^[56] were carried out. The appearance of celiac disease, constipation, and vasodilatation ^[57], as well as the risk of kidney disorders, may be decreased by complementary consumption of whole and ground chia along with chia oil.

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