Boosting C Sequestration through Forest Management

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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ecologies3010003

Soil has a major role in sequestering atmospheric CO2. This has further benefits and potential to improve soil fertility and food production, mitigate climate change, restore land degradation, and conserve ecosystem biodiversity. However, its health is increasingly being threatened by the growing population, land degradation and climate change effects. Despite its importance, soil organic carbon (SOC) is understudied in the tropics.

management practices soil fertility improvement land degradation recovery climate change mitigation tropical forest ecosystems

1. Introduction

In twenty-five years, the world’s forested area has decreased 31%, i.e., from 4128 million ha in 1990 to 3999 million ha in 2015. The tropical domain comprises the largest proportion of the world’s forests (45 percent, i.e., 1.8 billion hectares), followed by the boreal (27 percent), temperate (16 percent) and subtropical (11 percent) domains ^[1]. Nevertheless, the largest forest loss has been reported in tropical regions, mainly in South America and Africa due to agricultural and/or industrial activities ^[2]. Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, i.e., 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, i.e., 2.6 million ha ^[3]. Pan et al. ^[4] estimated forest sink to be equal in magnitude to both land-use change sources and the terrestrial sink derived from fossil fuel emissions with subtracted sinks from ocean and atmosphere. Nonetheless, forest ecosystems harbor the largest terrestrial carbon (C) pool ^[4] with more than 80% of all terrestrial aboveground C and more than 70% of all soil organic C ^[5].

Managing forest ecosystems for C sequestration, land restoration and climate mitigation is, therefore, crucial ^[4]^[5]^[6]. There are three main factors to deal with in managing C in forest ecosystems: C dynamics, C pool size and C chemical forms. Managing forest to sequester C depends on human activities such as silviculture (selection of tree species, rotation period), spacing (number of trees at planting), disturbances (pest infestations, wind throw, wild fire), air pollution and water management ^[5]. Future forest development scenarios simulated for 100 years based on ten case study landscapes across Europe, revealed the potential of managing European forests in guiding the provision of ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity and sustainable wood production ^[7]. The researchers argued that climate change associated disturbances, such as storms and extended drought periods, which were not taken into account in the study, must be integrated in the scenarios.

Unlike in the western United States, stimulation of potential forest carbon sequestration has been performed using the Community Land Model 4.5 (CLM) taking into account the vulnerability to drought and fire to hierarchize forest land for preservation and further relativize the C priority to biodiversity ^[8]. It appears that the preservation of temperate forest (medium to high potential in storing C) and weak susceptibility to climate change in the western United States, equate with 27–32% of the global mitigation potential formerly determined for temperate and boreal forests for around 8 yr of regional fossil fuel emissions ^[8]. The potential of boosting C sequestration capacity and mitigating CO₂ emissions using tree planting in the United States has been demonstrated by forest inventory describing nearly 1.4 trillion trees from more than 130,000 national forestlands ^[9].

Tropical forests store large quantities of C below and above ground ^[10]. They also have the highest available timber volume (121 m³ ha⁻¹), C storage (91 t ha⁻¹) and species diversity. Boreal forest ecosystems have the least of these attributes ^[11], although they have large C stocks in soils ^[4]. Tropical forest ecosystems possess, therefore, the highest potential to capture and sequester C as they have the highest C density relative to all forests ^[12]. The overall C cycle in tropical forest ecosystems both natural and planted is roughly schematized (Figure 1 ^[4]). In fact, their capacity for sequestering atmospheric C estimated using two atmospheric inversion models (MACC-II and Jena CarboScope) and 10 dynamic global vegetation models (TRENDY), has even increased the most over the last two decades, making them crucial in mitigating climate change ^[13]. According to this study, the less CO₂ ecosystems absorb on a worldwide scale, the warmer the climate is. Amongst these tropical forest ecosystems, there are three main rainforest basins, i.e., the Amazon basin being the largest, the Congo basin and Southeast Asia the second and third, respectively ^[14]. Managing forest in these regions is, therefore, vital to foster C sequestration with further benefits on land restoration (degraded forests and other lands), mitigating climate change and preserving natural forests and ecosystem biodiversity ^[15].

Figure 1. Carbon cycle in tropical forest ecosystems ^[4].

The capacity of forests in storing and sequestering C is beyond doubt ^[4]^[5]^[16], the overall C in forests’ above- and below-ground biomass was estimated at 296 Gt (or 73 tons per ha) in 2015 ^[2]. Forest soils contain nearly half of the total organic carbon of terrestrial ecosystems ^[17]. Soils store approximately three times as much C as found in either the atmosphere or in the living plants, with the largest portion in soils under tropical forests ^[4]. Forest ecosystems play a vital role in the climate system through C, water and other biogeochemical cycles ^[18]. Climate change affects forest ecosystems, making their adaptation and resilience essential for their productivity and sustainability ^[16]^[19]. It has been argued that tropical forest ecosystems may not be resilient to climate change over the long term, mainly due to predicted depletion in rainfall and increased drought (Malhi et al. 2009 cited in ^[16]). Nevertheless, an increase in their great capacity to sequester atmospheric C over the last two decades, i.e., in their potential ability to mitigate climate change has been argued ^[13]. Although, Malhi et al. ^[18] declared that direct anthropogenic activities, such as land-use change which involves habitat loss and overexploiting have a more pronounced impact on ecosystems than climate change. In addition to climate change impacts on tropical forest ecosystems, soil health including C status is threatened due to the increasingly growing population, soil fertility and food depletion, leading to growing land degradation ^[19]^[20].

For years, the United Nations has been raising the alarm to prevent, stop and reverse the degradation of land worldwide with the goal to achieve land degradation neutrality and further fulfill the UN-Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) similar to other international initiatives (‘Bonn Challenge’ and the ‘UN- Decade on Ecosystem Restoration [2021–2030]). Soil degradation may be anthropogenic and/or natural of four main types: (i) physical (compaction, runoff and erosion, desertification, etc.); (ii) chemical (acidification, salinization, leaching, nutrient depletion, pollution, etc.); (iii) biological (loss of soil biodiversity, a decline in soil organic matter, loss soil C sink capacity, etc.); and (iv) ecological (disruption in nutrient cycling, perturbations in the hydrological cycle, decline in use efficiency of inputs, etc.) ^[21]. Soil and ecosystem C pools, including soil degradation restoration, may be improved by forest management, i.e., integration of trees in degraded lands ^[12].

In the past two decades, there has been an increase in the number of publications on soil organic carbon (SOC) ^[17]^[22]. Most publications deal with the forms and dynamics of SOC, its role in nutrient cycling, soil fertility and crop production, and its link to climate change, management practices for land restoration, and modeling ^[20]^[21]^[23]^[24]^[25]. In November 2015, attention was focused on soil for the first time at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), with the launch of the ‘4 per 1000′ Initiative, i.e., Soils for Food Security and Climate Change (www.4per1000.org (accessed on 19 January 2022)). In 2016, at the 22nd COP of UNFCCC, a joint workshop on agriculture and soils, taking into account its vulnerabilities to climate change and approaches to addressing food security, was convened at the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA) on the topic of improved nutrient use and manure management towards sustainable and resilient agricultural systems ^[25]. Both climate change and land degradation are increasingly threatening sustainable agriculture and forestry, food production and the environment worldwide ^[19]^[20]^[21]^[26] www.4p1000.org (accessed 19 January 2022).

Soil organic matter (SOM) is a sink for nutrients and is widely used as an indicator to evaluate chemical, physical and biological soil fertility or soil health ^[27]^[28]. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is one of its key components constituting 50–58% of the total SOM amount ^[29]^[30]. The stable pool of SOM is large with a mean residence time of several decades, so more than 2 years may be required to assess changes in SOC ^[31]. However, changes in SOM biodegradability or microbial biomass can be readily detectable in a shorter period of time ^[32]^[33]. As the most important reservoir of C, soils can act as both source and sink of C ^[24]. This depends on climate ^[34]^[35]^[36], soil texture ^[37]^[38]^[39], soil acidity ^[40], vegetation cover ^[41], biomass inputs and management ^[42], but also depth ^[43] and the initial C level and soil type ^[44]^[45]. SOC accretion enhances SOM quality when protected by fine soil fractions ^[46]^[47]^[48]^[49]. On the contrary, the decline in SOM quality is characterized by higher C mineralization caused by climate, management practices, or edaphic factors ^[38]^[50]^[51].

Soil C sequestration has the potential to simultaneously improve soil fertility (enhancing the physical, biological and chemical properties), increase food production (amount and quality of crop) and mitigate climate change (reduce greenhouse-house gases) ^[24]^[30]^[43]^[44]^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56]. Stored SOC also controls, mitigates and halts land degradation ^[20]^[21]. Using the global meta-analysis on the restoration of ecosystem services (C pool, soil attributes and biodiversity protection) in tropical forests, Shimamoto et al. ^[57] reported enhanced restoration in the biodiversity protection (degraded former pasture land), and the C pool (degraded former agricultural plots). The researchers argued that the correct strategy broadens the restoration of ecosystem services in degraded tropical forests.

Priorities for SOC research such as monitoring and assessment are needed in areas where its decomposition is accelerated due to its large stocks and climate change ^[41], such as tropical forest ecosystems where land degradation is worsening ^[2]. Sustainable soil management through C sequestration is one of the key soil components which is crucial to restoring and sustaining soil health fostering climate change mitigation and land restoration ^[20]^[21], www.4per1000.org (accessed on 19 January 2022), especially since the tragedy of the COVID-19 ^[58]. Deforestation has already been widely studied ^[2]^[10], this paper, therefore, will mostly focus on SOC management in tropical forest ecosystems, the more threatened forest ecosystems to date, to both mitigate climate change as well as to halt/restore land degradation. Afforestation from cropland, grassland, or marginal land may impact the environment and the economy. Some practices, such as the introduction of nitrogen-fixing species or organic residue management, ensure good management and sustainability of forest ecosystems, i.e., improve soil fertility and prevent land degradation through enhanced SOC sequestration and nutrient cycling. The link between SOC quantity and quality (link to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), i.e., link between sequestered soil C and other nutrients), and how it may stabilize C sequestration and prevent land degradation in the long term, have been under-researched in tropical regions (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Conceptual scheme (1) Soil fertility improvement (food production); (2) Climate change mitigation (Resilience and adaptation to climate change); and (3) Land degradation recovery (soil services ecosystems: carbon pool, soil attributes and biodiversity): how stable sequestered SOC (linked to other nutrients and/or to fine soil fractions) may sustain soil health through SOC sequestration and its co-benefits in the long term.

2. Forest Management Boosting C Sequestration

Forest management is important to boost C sequestration and favor soil health due to their crucial role in the global C cycle and several ecosystem services, including C sequestration (soil and biomass), they provide to societies ^[4]^[12]^[59]. This ability is enhanced in tropical forest ecosystems since Fernandez-Martinez et al. ^[13] argued that their capacity in sequestering C has increased over the last two decades. Carbon sequestration may occur or not in different tropical forest ecosystems following forest management (Table 1). SOC sequestration has been widely reviewed ^[17]^[60] and is largely related to land use history, while its rate is affected by the tree species, soil type and environment ^[17], and climate and geographic factors ^[35]^[37]. Managing forest ecosystems via afforestation or reforestation often leads to C sequestration in both biomass and soil, while its success strongly depends on edaphic factors in addition to those above ^[45]^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64].

Table 1. C Sequestration in some forest (natural and planted) ecosystems and locations in the tropics.

Location & Climate Zone	Soil Type	Forest Type	Baseline	Sequestered C	Duration (Year, Yr)	More Information	References
Ghana/Tropical	ND	Mature plantation of Aucoumea klaineana, Cedrela odorata, Tarrietia utilis, Terminalia ivorensis	Seconda-ry forest 103 Mg ha⁻¹ -	70 Mg C ha⁻¹ (primary forest) 56 Mg C ha⁻¹ (timber plantation) -	42–47 years & secondary	Higher aboveground biomass C stocks in managed forest plantations compared to naturally regenerated secondary forests,	(Brown et al. 2020)
Thailand/Tropical monsoon climate	ND	Plantation of teak	-	19.1 Mg C ha⁻¹ 82.1 Mg C ha⁻¹ 73.0 Mg C ha⁻¹ 45.4 Mg C ha⁻¹	17 yr 24 yr 31 yr 35 yr	Average C storage in standing trees of 63.3 MgC ha⁻¹, of which 42% in the harvest wood products	(Chayaporn et al. 2021)
India/Overall	ND	All forest types		3969 million tonnes (2015) 3979 million tonnes (2017)	-	Largest C stock followed by aboveground and belowground biomass	(Indian State of Forest, 2017)
Nepal/Tropical	ND	Community degraded and non-degraded forests	Degraded forests (SOC = 42.55 ± 3.10 t ha⁻¹ & TC = 152.68 ± 22.95 t ha⁻¹)	Non degraded forests (SOC = 54.21 ± 3.59 t ha⁻¹ & TC= 301.08 ± 27.07 t ha⁻¹)	-	Better forest management in community forests: 1.97 times > in non-degraded than in degraded forests	(Joshi et al. 2020)
Republic of the Congo/Subtropical	Ferralic Arenosols	Plantation of A. mangium and eucalypt	Plantation of eucalypt (15.9 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻)	0.9 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹	7 yr	Soil C stock in plantation of A. mangium (16.7). 0–25 cm	(Koutika et al. 2014)
Republic of the Congo/Subtropical	Ferralic Arenosols	Plantation of A. mangium and eucalypt	Plantation of eucalypt (15.9 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻)	1.8	7 yr	Soil C in plantation of eucalypt and A. mangium (17.8). 0–25 cm	(Koutika et al. 2014)
Malaysia/Tropical	Well drained Bekenu series (loamy siliceous, with low fertility status)	Plantation of A. mangium	Plantation of A. mangium (1 year) (74.9)	15 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹	3 yr	Plantation of A. mangium 3 yr (89.9) 0–15, 15–30 cm	(Lee et al. 2015)
Malaysia/Tropical		Plantation of A. mangium	Plantation of A. mangium (1 year) (74.9)	64 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹	5 yr	Plantation of A. mangium 5 yr (138.9) 0–15, 15–30 cm	(Lee et al. 2015)
Costa Rica/Hu-mid tropical	ND	Mature natural forest	-	Estimated total CO₂ sequestered 18,210 ton (2019)	50 yr		(Paniagua-Ramirez et al. 2021)
Brazil, (Subtropical)	Ferralsol of sandy texture	Plantation of A. mangium and Eucalypt	ND	C accretion	2.25–3.25 y	Changes in microbial attributes and a strong effect on Soil C and N dynamics	(Pereira et al. 2018)
Vietnam/Tropical	Ferralic Acrisols, Dystric Cambisols	Plantation of Eucalypt and A. mangium	Plantation of Eucalypt (50.9)	11.5 tC ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹	7–16 yr	Plantations of A. mangium (62.4) 0–30 cm	(Sang et al. 2013)

Key: ND (not determined).

In central China, afforestation of large uncultivated areas to woodland, shrubland and cropland plantations increased soil C and N storage mainly in macroaggregates (>2000 µm) ^[64]. Taking into account the potential risk of threatening savanna ecosystems ^[65]^[66], afforestation of native tropical savannas to mixed acacia and eucalypt plantation increased soil C stocks in the top 25 cm of the mixed-species (50% acacia and 50% eucalypt) stands (17.8 ± 0.7 t ha⁻¹) relative to pure acacia and eucalypt stands, i.e., 16.7 ± 0.4 t. ha⁻¹ and 15.9 ± 0.4 t ha⁻¹, respectively, at the end of the first 7-year rotation in the coastal Congolese plains ^[67]^[68]. An additional C stock of 15 t ha⁻¹ and 64 t ha⁻¹ at year 3 (89.9 t ha⁻¹) and 5 (138.9 t ha⁻¹) relative to year 1 (74.9 t ha⁻¹), respectively, was reported on the 0–30 cm of the loamy siliceous soil with low fertility beneath the A. mangium plantations in Malaysia ^[69].

Policies and practices fostering C sequestration in the Makiling forest reserve and the entire Philippines were reviewed and the goal of long-term C sequestration to mitigate climate change through sustainable management of forests was stated ^[70]. The researchers recognized reforestation as one of the strategies for enhancing C sequestration capacity, mainly when it involved plantation of fast-growing species and high-timber-yielding species. Reforestation/afforestation through practices, such as introducing fast-growing NFS or nitrogen-fixing bacteria, or managing organic residues, i.e., leaving them on the field after wood harvest, may increase SOC stocks even in coarse-textured soils where SOC decomposition is otherwise high ^[17]^[67]^[71]^[72]. This is due to biological changes that result from newly added organic residues ^[73]^[74] or the input of N-rich organic matter following the shift in the microbial activity and/or bacterial composition ^[75]^[76]^[77]^[78]^[79]. Changes in soil microbial indicators lead to C and N accumulation in eucalypt mixed with acacia stands relative to pure or fertilized stands after 27 months ^[15]. In fact, N₂-fixing species have the ability to ameliorate soil fertility and enhance carbon sequestration via interactions between biota and nutrient availability in tropical forest plantations ^[15]^[68]^[76]^[77].

Managing forest plantations of mature (42–47 years) Aucoumea klaineana, Cedrela odorata, Tarrietia utilis, and Terminalia ivorensis on long rotations led to a higher biomass accumulation (aboveground C stocks), C sequestration, and timber value, i.e., higher climate mitigation potential in both the moist and wet zones relative to secondary naturally regenerated forest in Ghana ^[80]. Natural forests still possess a great capacity to sequester and store C in other cases. A review arguing to develop forest management practices that boost C sequestration in forest soils reported an overall amount of 23.48 million tonnes of C with a C sequestration potential of 4 tonnes of C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ ^[81]. However, total soil C accounting for 36–46% in the forest ecosystem of Malaysia was excluded ^[81]. In other cases, SOC has been considered ^[82]^[83]. Estimation of C stock in India’s forests reported an increase in SOC, the largest pool, i.e., from 3969 million tonnes (2015) to 3979 million tons (2017), followed by the aboveground (2220 million tons (2015) and 2238 million tons (2017)) and belowground (695 million tons (2015) and 699 million tons (2017) biomass ^[82]. In the same line, Joshi et al. ^[83] evaluated SOC sequestration of degraded and non-degraded community forests in the Terai region of Kanchanpur in Nepal. They reported an increase in C sequestration of 1.97 times higher in the non-degraded community forests (SOC sequestration of 54.21 ± 3.59 t ha⁻¹ and total C stock of 301.08 ± 27.07 t ha⁻¹) relative to degraded community forest (SOC sequestration of 42.55 ± 3.10 t ha⁻¹ and total C stock of 152.68 ± 22.95 t ha⁻¹). Investigation on forest management in the teak plantation (35 yr) in western Thailand evidenced an average C storage of 63.3 MgC ha⁻¹ and 42% of it stored in the harvest wood products, highlighting its potential to sequester C in aboveground biomass and contribute to mitigating climate change ^[84]. Potential C sequestration of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis Müll.Arg.) plantation has been evaluated using eddy covariance technique measuring the net ecosystem exchange (2013–2016) and indicated annual CO₂ sequestration ranked between 28.0 and 43.1 tonnes CO₂ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ with an average of 36.7 tonnes CO₂ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in Thailand ^[85]. The study also stated further that these plantations sequestered around 24.9 kg of CO₂ to produce a kilogram of natural-rubber latex.

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Lydie Stella Koutika

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1. Introduction

2. Forest Management Boosting C Sequestration

References