You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/children9020285

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can cause difficulties in communication and social interaction. Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions (NDBIs) have been tested by clinical trials of behavioral treatments. NDBIs integrate developmental and relationship-based approaches with applied behavioral analysis (ABA) strategies and are implemented in the child’s day-to-day environment, including in play and routine activities where many learning opportunities can be embedded. Among evidence-based practices, the Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) is a representative approach to NDBIs. In addition, ESDM follows comprehensive NDBI principles, grounded in developmental and behavioral science and neuroscientific evidence.

autism spectrum disorder fidelity parent-implemented Early Start Denver Model

1. Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can cause difficulties in communication and social interaction. Children with ASD may maintain the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors [1]. Furthermore, evidence suggests that reliable diagnosis of children with ASD can be made before the age of 2 years [2]. An emphasis on very early intervention in several reviews suggests the importance of effective early intervention which may relate to greater possibility of children’s learning and progress [3]. Accordingly, early intervention is key and leads to better outcomes in shaping the child’s developing brain and is especially crucial for young children with social and developmental disabilities [4][5].
Early intervention research for ASD has increased dramatically in the past decade. Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions (NDBIs) have been tested by clinical trials of behavioral treatments [5][6][7][8][9]. NDBIs integrate developmental and relationship-based approaches with applied behavioral analysis (ABA) strategies and are implemented in the child’s day-to-day environment, including in play and routine activities where many learning opportunities can be embedded [10][11][12]. In many interventions, natural reinforcement strategies are used which focus on the child’s choices and rewards closely related to the learning activities [13].
Among evidence-based practices, the Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) is a representative approach to NDBIs. In addition, ESDM follows comprehensive NDBI principles, grounded in developmental and behavioral science [14][15] and neuroscientific evidence [16]. Based on ABA and developmental psychology, ESDM is a comprehensive early intervention that aims to reduce the severity of ASD symptom and emphasize in the development of cognitive, social, emotional, and language abilities [4][17][18]. The model was designed for use with children aged 18–48 months and features a manualized curriculum divided into four levels [19], each of which targets different developmental areas. Moreover, by emphasizing natural environments and positive relationships to promote children’s learning outcomes, ESDM acknowledges that parents are best placed to implement early interventions in the home setting [3][18][20][21].
Grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s [22] ecological systems theory, the theoretical framework indicates that multiple levels of the child’s environment influence child development. The microsystem is the smallest system in which relationships between the child and parent are constructed [23]. Parents play a crucial role in the early interventions provided to young children with disabilities, helping foster the child’s growth and development [24]. Parenting a child with autism can be rewarding but also challenging [25][26][27]. Furthermore, research underscored that parents of children with ASD consistently reported lower levels of parenting-related anxiety, stress, or depression [5][28]. Indeed, many studies on NDBIs have focused on evaluating the effects of early intervention when delivered by parents. Recent studies have demonstrated that ESDM intervention strategies can be implemented by parents to maximize learning opportunities in daily activities and bridge service gaps; this intervention is known as parent-implemented ESDM (P-ESDM) [15][28]. Several studies have revealed that (a) parents can learn to implement the intervention techniques with fidelity and (b) doing so results in a range of improvements in child outcomes [7][8][14][29][30]. Thus, research recommended that parents can plausibly incorporate naturalistic techniques into daily routines in order to accelerate the maintenance and generalizability of treatment gains [31][32].
P-ESDM is an evidence-based structured approach that teaches parents ESDM techniques such as gaining the child’s attention and motivating them, promoting dyadic engagement and joint activity routines, enhancing verbal and nonverbal communication, and incorporating play skills [26]. To determine whether improvements in the child’s development result from corresponding changes in the techniques of parent’s interaction, one must take parent’s use of the intervention strategies into account [33]. Treatment fidelity is defined as “the methodological strategies used to monitor and enhance the reliability and validity of behavioural interventions” [34] (p. 139). The treatment fidelity is considered acceptable for an adherence of 80% or more [35]. However, the role of treatment fidelity relates to child intervention response needs further investigation [36]. Thus, measuring treatment fidelity is crucial for clarifying this relationship.

2. Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

ESDM is an evidence-based intervention integrating ABA principles [37]. To address the need for an evidence base that includes research methods evaluating effectiveness, researchers included interventional studies in this entry. All 13 research articles in this entry reported using a quantitative research design, including three that used a multiple-baseline across subjects design [5][38][39] and one that adopted a single-case nonconcurrent alternating-treatment design [40]. Of the group studies, one was a nonrandomized controlled trial [12], four were randomized controlled trials [15][28][41][42], and three used a quasi-experimental one-group pretest–posttest design [3][16][17].
Table 1 provide a summary of each study’s (a) child characteristics, (b) intervention intensity and duration, (c) child outcome measures, and (d) parent-related outcome measures and results on parent fidelity.
Table 1. Summary of child characteristics, type of study design, outcome measures, and results of parent fidelity of the included studies.
Table
Study Title 2 Study Design Intervention Intensity and Duration Outcome Measures Parent
Fidelity
(Pretest→Posttest)
N Age
(MOS)		 Diagnosis Child Parent
Abouzeid et al. (2020) [17] 10 18–45 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Quasi-experimental
one-group pretest–posttest		 3 h/wk for 13 wk No information
  • Satisfied or highly satisfied
  • Positive perceptions of the relationship between the coach and their family
 53% → 61%
Estes et al. (2014) [28] 49 (int.)
49 (TAU)		 12–24 At risk of ASD Randomized controlled trial 1 h/wk for 12 wk No information
  • P-ESDM group reported no increase in parenting stress whereas community group increased.
  • P-ESDM did not differ in their sense of competence compared to the community group
 No scores but were analyzed using videotape
Hernandez-Ruiz (2018) [18] 3 30–36 At risk/clinical diagnosis of ASD Quasi-experimental
one-group pretest–posttest		 0.5 h/wk for 10 wk No information
  • Two of the mothers seemed to feel more competent
  • Parent’s perception of their child’s social skills modified
  • Decreasing from moderate distress to no distress
  • The intervention was culturally and developmentally appropriate, enjoyable, and promoted interaction
 No information
Hernandez-Ruiz (2020) [40] 1 48 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Single-case, nonconcurrent alternating-treatment design 1 h/wk for 12 wk Improvement in nonverbal responsiveness and initiation of joint attention Parents seemed capable and found value in learning strategies from professionals that they could implement at home. 52–58% → 80% (linear)
Malucelli et al. (2021) [43] 9 (int.)
9 (TAU)		 29–42 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Randomized controlled trial 2 h/wk for 12 wk Learning rate in different areas (except imitation) showed significant differences between two groups Descriptive information was provided by the researchers regarding the high agreement of observation in 10-min videos of parent-child interaction No information
Rogers et al. (2012) [15] 49 (int.)
49 (TAU)		 12–24 At risk of ASD Randomized controlled trial 1 h/wk for 12 wk Improvement in both groups; no significant differences related to group assignment were noted
  • P-ESDM group did not exhibit significantly higher P-ESDM fidelity scores than the community treatment group.
  • Parents receiving ESDM coaching exhibited stronger working relationships with their primary therapist than parents receiving community intervention
 P-ESDM group had large effect size (0.57) compared with the community intervention group’s moderate effect size (0.37)
Rogers et al. (2019) [41] 45 12–30 At risk/clinical diagnosis of ASD Randomized controlled trial 1.5 h/wk for 12 wk Significant developmental acceleration; child outcomes did not differ by group
  • P-ESDM++ group exhibited significantly increased sensitivity and skill compared with the parents in the P-ESDM group
  • Parents in the enhanced group exhibited significantly greater improvement in interaction skills than parents in the control group
  • Parents were extremely satisfied with the intervention
 3.4 → 3.8
(maximum of 5.0)
Vismara et al. (2012) [38] 9 16–38 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Single-subject multiple-baseline design 1 h/wk for 12 wk Children’s social-communicative behaviors increased significantly, as indicated by three independent data sources
  • Parental responsivity, affect, and achievement-oriented behaviors increased during intervention
  • Parents gave positive ratings on a feasibility and acceptability questionnaire
 2.62 → 4.29
(maximum of 5.0)
Vismara et al. (2013) [39] 8 18–45 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Single-subject multiple- baseline design 1.5 h/wk for 12 wk Use of functional verbal utterances, joint attention initiations(eye gaze alternation, i.e., giving, showing, or pointing), and receptive and expressive language increased during intervention and follow-up
  • Parent engagement increased during intervention and follow-up
  • Parents gave positive ratings on a satisfaction survey
 6 of 8 parents achieved fidelity (80%) on the ESDM fidelity scale during intervention and 7 of 8 parents during follow-up.
Vismara et al. (2016) [42] 14 (int.)
10 (TAU)		 18–48 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Randomized controlled trial 1.5 h/wk for 12 wk No treatment effect for children’s social communication behaviors
  • Posttreatment, 36% of parents in the P-ESDM group compared with 20% of parents in the community-treated group achieved fidelity
  • Parents in the P-ESDM group used the website more often and with higher satisfaction
 0% → 36% of P-ESDM parents achieved fidelity
Vismara et al. (2019) [5] 4 18–48 fragile X syndrome Single-subject
multiple-baseline		 1.5 h/wk for 12 wk Standardized composite scores increased for all but one child
  • Parent fidelity increased
  • Three out of four parents rated the intervention and coaching experience positively
  • Parents also reported improvement of children’s understanding and usage of communicative gestures and words
 below 4.00 → above 4.00
(maximum of 5.0)
Waddington et al. (2020b) [3] 5 23–59 At risk/clinical diagnosis of ASD Quasi-experimental
one-group pretest–posttest		 1 h/wk for 12 wk All mothers mentioned improvements in spoken and/or nonverbal communication
  • All five mothers gave the intervention positive ratings through the Treatment Acceptability Rating Scale-Revised.
  • Four mothers commented on the positive personal qualities and knowledge of the trainer.
 No information (only reported four of the mothers improved)
Zhou et al. (2018) [12] 23 (int.)
20 (TAU)		 18–30 Clinical diagnosis of ASD Nonrandomized controlled trial 1.5 h/wk for 26 wk Neither group exhibited significant change in ASD severity, but the P-ESDM group exhibited greater improvement in social affect Parents in the P-ESDM group experienced decreased parenting stress, but those in the community intervention group exhibited an opposite trend. No information
MOS months, Int. intervention group, TAU treatment as usual group.

2.1. Child Characteristics

Of the 13 included studies, 12 provided P-ESDM intervention to a total of 326 children who had received a clinical diagnosis of ASD or were at risk of receiving an ASD diagnosis. In the study by Abouzeid et al. [17], 6 of the 10 children had received a concomitant diagnosis of global developmental delay (n = 5) or attention deficit disorder (n = 1). In Zhou et al. [12] and Estes et al. [28], neurological diseases of known genetic etiology (e.g., fragile X) were excluded. By contrast, Vismara et al. [5] included young children with fragile X syndrome, which is a genetic condition and the leading identified cause of ASD. In six studies [12][15][17][28][38][39][41][42][43], the ASD diagnosis of the participants was based on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Scale (ADOS) [44]. Three of these studies [5][12][28] included a clinical diagnosis of ASD based on the criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth or fifth edition) [1][45]. In the study by [40], participants were assessed using the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revision with Follow-up [46], whereas in the study by Waddington et al. [3], participants considered “at risk” of receiving an ASD diagnosis were assessed through the Social Communication Questionnaire [47]. Participants ranged in age from 12 to 59 months at the start of the intervention.

2.2. Intervention Intensity and Duration

In total, 12 of the 13 studies had P-ESDM training sessions ranging from 1 to 2 h per week over a 10–13-week period. Nonetheless, because neither the P-ESDM nor the community group exhibited significant changes, Zhou et al. [12] extended the duration of intervention to 26 weeks (two cycles including two ESDM assessments) to evaluate the effects.

2.3. Child Outcomes

The advantages of the P-ESDM intervention in children’s learning outcomes, specifically child behavioral functioning and development, social interaction and communication skills, autism severity, and diagnostic outcomes, were analyzed.
Six research articles reported measures for child behavioral functioning and development [5][12][15][38][39][41]. These measures were assessed using a variety of instruments, including the MCDI [48]; MSEL [49]; Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales [50]; PATH CC [51]; Griffiths Development Scales, Chinese version [52][53]; and Child Behavior Rating Scale [54]. All six research articles reported significant improvements over time after the P-ESDM intervention. However, two of the three group studies [12][38][43] reported no differences in child outcomes between groups.
Eight research articles reported measures for observations of social interaction and communication skills [3][5][12][15][18][38][40][42]. These measures included expressive and receptive language, verbal and nonverbal responsiveness, spontaneous verbal utterances, imitation skills, symbolic play, social orienting, and joint attention. All the research articles reported positive results for all these outcome measures, except for research articles featuring group studies [15][42]; these group study articles reported no significant differences in measures pertaining to social and communication skills. In addition, one article [43] applied the ESDM Curriculum Checklist and the Denver Model commitment coding sheet to examine the effect of the intervention.
Three research articles [12][15][41] reported measures for autism severity and diagnostic outcomes using ADOS [44]. These studies reported negative results with no significant differences following intervention.

2.4. Parent-Related Outcomes and the Examination of Parent Fidelity

The advantages of P-ESDM intervention in parent-related outcomes, specifically parent satisfaction, parenting stress, coaching experience, parent engagement, parent-implemented goals, and parent fidelity, were analyzed.
Nine research articles [3][12][15][17][18][39][40][41][42] reported positive results in that most of the parents felt satisfied or agreed that they would recommend this approach to others. Moreover, these studies used questionnaires or measures that evaluated the parents’ willingness to participate in the program, such as the Treatment Acceptability Rating Form-Revised questionnaire [55] and the Intervention Evaluation Form (University of Washington, unpublished [41]).
Several research articles evaluated additional parent-related outcome measures. Two research articles [28][42] reported positive results for parenting stress based on the measures included in the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form [56] and the Questionnaire of Resources and Stress [57]. Three research articles [3][5][17] reported positive ratings for coaching experience and relationship with the trainer. Three research articles [5][38][39] reported positive results for parent engagement using the Maternal Behavior Rating Scale [54] or measures developed by the researcher [5].
Ten of the 13 studies examined parent fidelity in implementation [3][5][15][17][28][38][39][40][41][42]. The measures included the ESDM Fidelity Rating System [19] and the P-ESDM Fidelity Tool [58]. All these research articles reported improvements in interaction skills over the 12-week period of the P-ESDM. However, most of the parents in only 50% of the studies [3][38][39][40][42] achieved the standard benchmark (at least 80% at posttest) for acceptable fidelity using the ESDM.

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Publishing: Arlington, MA, USA, 2013.
  2. Hosozawa, M.; Sacker, A.; Mandy, W.; Midouhas, E.; Flouri, E.; Cable, N. Determinants of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in childhood and adolescence: Evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Autism 2020, 24, 1557–1565.
  3. Waddington, H.; van der Meer, L.; Sigafoos, J.; Bowden, C.J. Mothers’ Perceptions of a Home-Based Training Program Based on the Early Start Denver Model. Adv. Neurodev. Disord. 2020, 4, 122–133.
  4. Contaldo, A.; Colombi, C.; Pierotti, C.; Masoni, P.; Muratori, F. Outcomes and moderators of Early Start Denver Model intervention in young children with autism spectrum disorder delivered in a mixed individual and group setting. Autism 2019, 24, 718–729.
  5. Vismara, L.A.; McCormick, C.E.B.; Shields, R.; Hessl, D. Extending the Parent-Delivered Early Start Denver Model to Young Children with Fragile X Syndrome. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2019, 49, 1250–1266.
  6. Gengoux, G.W.; Abrams, D.A.; Schuck, R.; Millan, M.E.; Libove, R.; Ardel, C.M.; Phillips, J.M.; Fox, M.; Frazier, T.W.; Hardan, A.Y. A Pivotal Response Treatment Package for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An RCT. Pediatrics 2019, 144, e20190178.
  7. Kasari, C.; Kaiser, A.; Goods, K.; Nietfeld, J.; Mathy, P.; Landa, R.; Murphy, S.; Almirall, D. Communication Interventions for Minimally Verbal Children With Autism: A Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2014, 53, 635–646.
  8. Wetherby, A.M.; Guthrie, W.; Woods, J.; Schatschneider, C.; Holland, R.D.; Morgan, L.; Lord, C. Parent-Implemented Social Intervention for Toddlers With Autism: An RCT. Pediatrics 2014, 134, 1084–1093.
  9. Vivanti, G.; Stahmer, A.C. Can the Early Start Denver Model Be Considered ABA Practice? Behav. Anal. Pract. 2020, 14, 230–239.
  10. Condillac, R.A.; Baker, D. Behavioral Intervention. In A Comprehensive Guide to Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities; Paul H. Brookes: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2017; pp. 401–411.
  11. Schreibman, L.; Dawson, G.; Stahmer, A.C.; Landa, R.; Rogers, S.J.; McGee, G.G.; Kasari, C.; Ingersoll, B.; Kaiser, A.P.; Bruinsma, Y.; et al. Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions: Empirically Validated Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2015, 45, 2411–2428.
  12. Zhou, B.; Xu, Q.; Li, H.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Rogers, S.J.; Xu, X. Effects of Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model Intervention on Chinese Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Non-Randomized Controlled Trial. Autism Res. 2018, 11, 654–666.
  13. Koegel, L.K.; Ashbaugh, K.; Koegel, R.L. Pivotal Response Treatment. In Early Intervention for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder; Lang, R., Hancock, T., Singh, N., Eds.; Evidence-Based Practices in Behavioral Health; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016.
  14. Dawson, G.; Rogers, S.; Munson, J.; Smith, M.; Winter, J.; Greenson, J.; Donaldson, A.; Varley, J. Randomized, Controlled Trial of an Intervention for Toddlers With Autism: The Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics 2010, 125, e17–e23.
  15. Rogers, S.J.; Estes, A.; Lord, C.; Vismara, L.; Winter, J.; Fitzpatrick, A.; Guo, M.; Dawson, G. Effects of a Brief Early Start Denver Model (ESDM)–Based Parent Intervention on Toddlers at Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2012, 51, 1052–1065.
  16. Sullivan, K.; Stone, W.L.; Dawson, G. Potential neural mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of early intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder. Res. Dev. Disabil. 2014, 35, 2921–2932.
  17. Abouzeid, N.; Rivard, M.; Mello, C.; Mestari, Z.; Boulé, M.; Guay, C. Parent coaching intervention program based on the Early Start Denver Model for children with autism spectrum disorder: Feasibility and acceptability study. Res. Dev. Disabil. 2020, 105, 103747.
  18. Hernandez-Ruiz, E. Music Therapy and Early Start Denver Model to Teach Social Communication Strategies to Parents of Preschoolers with ASD: A Feasibility Study. Music Ther. Perspect. 2018, 36, 26–39.
  19. Rogers, S.J.; Dawson, G. Early Start Denver Model for Young Children with Autism: Promoting Language, Learning, and Engagement; Guilford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2020.
  20. Oono, I.P.; Honey, E.J.; McConachie, H. Parent-mediated early intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Evid.-Based Child Health A Cochrane Rev. J. 2013, 8, 2380–2479.
  21. Ruppert, T.; Machalicek, W.; Hansen, S.G.; Raulston, T.; Frantz, T. Training Parents to Implement Early Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. In Early Intervention for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder; Lang, R., Hancock, T.B., Singh, N.N., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 47–83.
  22. Bronfenbrenner, U. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1979.
  23. Benjamin, M.D. Teacher and Parental Influence on Childhood Learning Outcomes. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2015.
  24. Acar, S.; Chen, C.-I.; Xie, H. Parental involvement in developmental disabilities across three cultures: A systematic review. Res. Dev. Disabil. 2021, 110, 103861.
  25. Bonis, S. Stress and Parents of Children with Autism: A Review of Literature. Issues Ment. Health Nurs. 2016, 37, 153–163.
  26. Ruiz, E.H.; Braden, B.B. Improving a Parent Coaching Model of Music Interventions for Young Autistic Children. J. Music Ther. 2021, 58, 278–309.
  27. May, C.; Fletcher, R.; Dempsey, I.; Newman, L. Modeling Relations among Coparenting Quality, Autism-Specific Parenting Self-Efficacy, and Parenting Stress in Mothers and Fathers of Children with ASD. Parenting 2015, 15, 119–133.
  28. Estes, A.; Vismara, L.; Mercado, C.; Fitzpatrick, A.; Elder, L.; Greenson, J.; Lord, C.; Munson, J.; Winter, J.; Young, G.; et al. The Impact of Parent-Delivered Intervention on Parents of Very Young Children with Autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2014, 44, 353–365.
  29. Solomon, R.; Van Egeren, L.A.; Mahoney, G.; Huber, M.S.Q.; Zimmerman, P. PLAY Project Home Consultation Intervention Program for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2014, 35, 475–485.
  30. Stadnick, N.A.; Stahmer, A.; Brookman-Frazee, L. Preliminary Effectiveness of Project ImPACT: A Parent-Mediated Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Delivered in a Community Program. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2015, 45, 2092–2104.
  31. Dawson, G.; Bernier, R. A quarter century of progress on the early detection and treatment of autism spectrum disorder. Dev. Psychopathol. 2013, 25, 1455–1472.
  32. Maglione, M.A.; Gans, D.; Das, L.; Timbie, J.; Kasari, C.; Panel, F.T.T.E.; HRSA Autism Intervention Research—Behavioral (AIR-B). Network Nonmedical Interventions for Children With ASD: Recommended Guidelines and Further Research Needs. Pediatrics 2012, 130, S169–S178.
  33. Waddington, H.; van der Meer, L.; Sigafoos, J.; Whitehouse, A. Examining parent use of specific intervention techniques during a 12-week training program based on the Early Start Denver Model. Autism 2019, 24, 484–498.
  34. Cadogan, S.; McCrimmon, A.W. Pivotal response treatment for children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of research quality. Dev. Neurorehabilit. 2015, 18, 137–144.
  35. Borrelli, B.; Sepinwall, D.; Ernst, D.; Bellg, A.J.; Czajkowski, S.; Breger, R.; DeFrancesco, C.; Levesque, C.; Sharp, D.L.; Ogedegbe, G.; et al. A new tool to assess treatment fidelity and evaluation of treatment fidelity across 10 years of health behavior research. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2005, 73, 852–860.
  36. Wainer, A.; Ingersoll, B. Intervention fidelity: An essential component for understanding ASD parent training research and practice. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 2013, 20, 335–357.
  37. Ryberg, K.H. Evidence for the Implementation of the Early Start Denver Model for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. Am. Psychiatr. Nurses Assoc. 2015, 21, 327–337.
  38. Vismara, L.A.; Young, G.S.; Rogers, S.J. Telehealth for Expanding the Reach of Early Autism Training to Parents. Autism Res. Treat. 2012, 2012, 1–12.
  39. Vismara, L.A.; McCormick, C.; Young, G.S.; Nadhan, A.; Monlux, K. Preliminary Findings of a Telehealth Approach to Parent Training in Autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2013, 43, 2953–2969.
  40. Hernandez-Ruiz, E. Feasibility of Parent Coaching of Music Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Music Ther. Perspect. 2020, 38, 195–204.
  41. Rogers, S.J.; Estes, A.; Vismara, L.; Munson, J.; Zierhut, C.; Greenson, J.; Dawson, G.; Rocha, M.; Sugar, C.; Senturk, D.; et al. Enhancing Low-Intensity Coaching in Parent Implemented Early Start Denver Model Intervention for Early Autism: A Randomized Comparison Treatment Trial. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2018, 49, 632–646.
  42. Vismara, L.A.; McCormick, C.E.B.; Wagner, A.L.; Monlux, K.; Nadhan, A.; Young, G.S. Telehealth Parent Training in the Early Start Denver Model: Results From a Randomized Controlled Study. Focus Autism Other Dev. Disabil. 2018, 33, 67–79.
  43. Malucelli, E.R.; Antoniuk, S.A.; Carvalho, N.O. The effectiveness of early parental coaching in the autism spectrum disorder. J. De Pediatr. 2021, 97, 453–458.
  44. Lord, C.; Rutter, M.; DiLavore, P.C.; Risi, S. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: ADOS; Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2002.
  45. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1994.
  46. Robins, D.; Fein, D.; Barton, M.L.; Green, J.A. The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers: An initial study investigating the early detection of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2001, 31, 131–144.
  47. Rutter, M.; Bailey, A.; Lord, C. The Social Communication Questionnaire Manual; Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2003.
  48. Fenson, L.; Marchman, V.A.; Thal, D.; Dale, P.S.; Bates, E.; Renzik, J.S. The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories: Level III: User’s Guide and Technical Manual, 2nd ed.; Brookes: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2007.
  49. Mullen, E.M. Mullen Scales of Early Learning; AGS: Circle Pines, MN, USA, 1995; pp. 58–64.
  50. Sparrow, S.; Balla, D.; Cicchetti, D. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd ed.; AGS: Circle Pines, MN, USA, 2005.
  51. Rogers, S.J.; Dawson, G.; Zierhut, C.; Winter, J.; McCormick, C.; Holly, E. The PATH Curriculum Checklist for Young Children with Autism; 2013; unpublished work.
  52. Li, M.; Xu, X.; Ao, L.J.; Wong, V.; Zhang, X.; Du, K.X.; Challis, D. Griffiths Development Scales-Chinese (GDS-C) from Birth to 8 Years; Hogrefe-Test Agency Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 2016. (In Chinese)
  53. Xia, X.L.; Challis, D.; Faragher, B. Griffiths Development Scales-Chinese (GDS-C) from Birth to 8 Years Analysis Manual; Hogrefe-Test Agency Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 2016. (In Chinese)
  54. Mahoney, G.; Wheeden, C.A. Effects of teacher style on the engagement of preschool aged children with special learning needs. J. Dev. Learn. Disord. 1998, 2, 293–351.
  55. Reimers, T.M.; Wacker, D.P.; Cooper, L.J.; de Raad, A.O. Acceptability of behavioral treatments for children: Analog and naturalistic evaluations by parents. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 1992, 21, 212–229.
  56. Abidin, R.R. Parenting Stress Index-Professional Manual, 3rd ed.; Psychological Assessment Resource: Lutz, FL, USA, 1995.
  57. Konstantareas, M.M.; Homatidis, S.; Plowright, C.M.S. Assessing resources and stress in parents of severely dysfunctional children through the Clarke modification of Holroyd’s Questionnaire on Resources and Stress. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 1992, 22, 217–234.
  58. Rogers, S.J.; Dawson, G.; Vismara, L.A. An Early Start for Your Child with Autism: Using Everyday Activities to Help Kids Connect, Communicate, and Learn; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Education, Special
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Szu-Yin Chu
View Times: 819
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 22 Feb 2022
Table of Contents
Academic Video Service
Feedback