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Adhikari, K. Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18925 (accessed on 13 December 2025).
Adhikari K. Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18925. Accessed December 13, 2025.
Adhikari, Koushik. "Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18925 (accessed December 13, 2025).
Adhikari, K. (2022, January 27). Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18925
Adhikari, Koushik. "Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages." Encyclopedia. Web. 27 January, 2022.
Development and Optimization of Peanut-Based Beverages
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods11030267

Development studies of peanut-based beverages have been ongoing for many years, but there are still challenges, especially with their sensory properties and, ultimately, consumer acceptability. As a result, peanut-based beverages are rarely found on the market, even in developed countries. The current study used mixture design and product matching approaches to develop and optimize peanut-based beverages. Sensory drivers of consumer acceptability were also determined.

peanut beverage optimization mixture design product matching CATA consumer acceptability

1. Introduction

Malnutrition and non-communicable diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases remain a global challenge [1]. Governments worldwide have devised strategies to promote health by nudging people to consume more nutritious foods and maintain a healthy lifestyle to address this challenge. Among such nutritious foods are legumes, such as peanuts. Unfortunately, food choices are not influenced by anticipated health benefits only, but also the sensory appeal of food, among other factors [2][3][4][5]. Therefore, the development of food products with acceptable sensory properties helps promote consumption. For instance, the development of peanut butter significantly improved consumption of peanuts in the U.S. Peanut butter currently accounts for about half of the edible form of peanuts in the country [6]. Despite the limitation of peanut allergies and sensitivities, globally, peanuts are highly consumed in various forms.
Worldwide, peanuts are primarily consumed in solid (snacks) or semi-solid form (pastes) and rarely as a liquid in the form of a beverage. Compared to solid and semi-solid foods, beverages are convenient, easy to digest, appeal to all age groups, and can be easily delivered in multiple flavor options. Therefore, peanut-based beverages have a higher potential to promote peanut consumption, especially now that consumers are more interested in beverages with health benefits [7][8]. Considering the competitive advantage of beverages over solid and semi-solid foods, development studies of peanut-based beverages have been ongoing for many years, with notable continual improvements in the resultant products’ physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics. Peanut-based beverages can be complex colloidal systems that affect the beverage’s sensory properties depending on the ingredients. Previous studies have used defatted peanut flour [9][10][11] or peanut protein isolates [12][13] to overcome some of these challenges in formulating the beverage. However, there are still challenges, especially with the sensory properties and, ultimately, the consumer acceptability of peanut-based beverages. As a result, peanut-based beverages are rarely found on the market, even in most developed countries. It is hypothesized that it is possible to develop an acceptable peanut-based beverage through product optimization techniques even when non-defatted peanuts are used. To develop acceptable products, the consumer’s voice must be heard and incorporated into the product design [9]. Consumers have needs and wants; prospects of success are high if a product satisfies those needs and wants [10]. Therefore, in this study, peanut-based beverages were developed and optimized based on consumers’ preferences.
The process of identifying a combination of ingredients that give the maximum desired response or produces a sensory perception similar to a targeted benchmark is called optimization [11]. When a benchmark or predesignated sensory profile is known, product matching is used. Product matching is a well-known sensory technique used to compare the sensory characteristics of a product, especially after reformulation [12]. In food product development, the ultimate goal is to maximize consumer acceptability, which is determined through affective tests. To identify drivers of consumer acceptability, food products are usually characterized using trained panelists and instrumental techniques [13]. However, other novel methods for sensory characterization of food products use consumers during product development. These methods were developed to speed up the food product development process and reduce costs associated with descriptive and instrumental analyses [14][15]. One of such rapid profiling methods involves using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) question. CATA is one of the most novel, simple, reproducible, and valid options for sensory characterization of various products using consumers [15][16]. Therefore, this study also used CATA to provide more insights into the consumers’ hedonic responses to the different peanut-based beverage formulations.

2. Current Insights

The quadratic trend in the overall liking of the beverage as the peanut paste proportion increased in the mixture displays a typical consumer response pattern. Consumer acceptability does not follow a linear trend even for generally good attributes such as sweetness. Beyond a certain optimal level, the sweetness is considered to be unappealing, and consumer liking starts to decline. Having more peanut paste in the beverage would likely guarantee more health benefits related to peanut consumption. However, the study has confirmed through the model validation that going beyond a peanut paste proportion of 0.6 in the two-component mixture would compromise consumer acceptability of the beverage. Although health is one of the food choice motives, sensory appeal usually dominates. Eating is, to a greater extent, a source of pleasure and comfort [17]. For instance, despite the health benefits, the global consumption of vegetables is generally low [18]. Many studies have partly attributed the low consumption to most vegetables’ lack of sensory appeal. Therefore, it is important to develop nutritious foods that have acceptable sensory properties as well.
In this study, product matching was an effective shortcut for developing an acceptable peanut-based beverage with SMMP in its formulation. Unlike barley, sorghum is commonly grown in Sub-Saharan Africa, and it is already used to produce both alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, among others [19]. Therefore, its use in the peanut-based beverage formulations would make commercialization more feasible, especially since the sensory properties were also acceptable. Raw-beany flavor is an undesirable sensory property that affects the acceptability of beverages from legumes. Therefore, the use of roasted peanuts in this study was of great benefit. Roasting suppressed the raw-beany flavor by enhancing the roasted peanutty flavor and imparting a brown color to the beverage. This had a significant positive mean impact on consumer acceptability. As in other countries, the sensory appeal of food is one of the dominant food choice motives in Malawi [2][3][5][20][21]; therefore, the success prospects of the beverages are high. Gama et al. [3] also found that Malawian consumers prefer more filling foods. Consequently, it is not surprising that beverages perceived to be thick were more liked than those considered to be watery.
Although non-defatted peanuts were used in the formulation, the optimal beverages were perceived to be stable (no phase separation), and this had a positive mean impact on overall acceptability. Peanuts have high oil content, and as a result, the colloidal stability of peanut-based beverages has been a great challenge. Others have used defatted peanut flour [22][23][24] or peanut protein isolates [25][26] to formulate the beverage to overcome this challenge. However, this affects the creaminess of the beverages, an attribute that also had a significant positive mean impact on consumer acceptability in this study. Therefore, the findings of this study confirm the effectiveness of the stabilization system for peanut-based beverages, using non-defatted peanuts, that was developed by Gama et al. [27].

References

  1. WHO. The Double Burden of Malnutrition. Available online: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/255413/1/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.3-eng.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 14 July 2020).
  2. Eertmans, A.; Victoir, A.; Notelaers, G.; Vansant, G.; van den Bergh, O. The Food Choice Questionnaire: Factorial invariant over western urban populations? Food Qual. Prefer. 2006, 17, 344–352.
  3. Gama, A.P.; Adhikari, K.; Hoisington, D.A. Factors influencing food choices of Malawian consumers: A food choice questionnaire approach. J. Sens. Stud. 2018, 33, e12442.
  4. Jáuregui-Lobera, I.; Ríos, P.B. What motivates the consumer’s food choice? Nutr. Hosppitalaria 2011, 26, 1313–1321.
  5. Prescott, J.; Young, O.; O’neill, L.; Yau, N.; Stevens, R. Motives for food choice: A comparison of consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand. Food Qual. Prefer. 2002, 13, 489–495.
  6. NPB. History of Peanuts and Peanut Butter. Available online: http://nationalpeanutboard.org/peanut-info/history-peanuts-peanut-butter.htm (accessed on 16 March 2020).
  7. Corbo, M.R.; Bevilacqua, A.; Petruzzi, L.; Casanova, F.P.; Sinigaglia, M. Functional beverages: The emerging side of functional foods: Commercial trends, research, and health implications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2014, 13, 1192–1206.
  8. Siro, I.; Kápolna, E.; Kápolna, B.; Lugasi, A. Functional food. Product development, marketing and consumer acceptance—A review. Appetite 2008, 51, 456–467.
  9. Van Kleef, E.; van Trijp, H.C.; Luning, P. Consumer research in the early stages of new product development: A critical review of methods and techniques. Food Qual. Prefer. 2005, 16, 181–201.
  10. Slater, S.F.; Narver, J.C. Intelligence generation and superior customer value. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 2000, 28, 120–127.
  11. Moskowitz, H.R. Product Testing and Sensory Evaluation of Foods: Marketing and R&D Approaches; Food & Nutrition Press, Inc.: Trumbull, CT, USA, 1983.
  12. Carpenter, R.P.; Lyon, D.H.; Hasdell, T.A. Guidelines for Sensory Analysis in Food Product Development and Quality Control; Springer Science & Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2012.
  13. Meilgaard, M.C.; Carr, B.T.; Civille, G.V. Sensory Evaluation Techniques; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2006.
  14. Ares, G. Methodological challenges in sensory characterization. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 2015, 3, 1–5.
  15. Varela, P.; Ares, G. Sensory profiling, the blurred line between sensory and consumer science. A review of novel methods for product characterization. Food Res. Int. 2012, 48, 893–908.
  16. Jaeger, S.R.; Hunter, D.C.; Kam, K.; Beresford, M.K.; Jin, D.; Paisley, A.G.; Chheang, S.L.; Roigard, C.M.; Ares, G. The concurrent use of JAR and CATA questions in hedonic scaling is unlikely to cause hedonic bias, but may increase product discrimination. Food Qual. Prefer. 2015, 44, 70–74.
  17. Clark, J.E. Taste and flavour: Their importance in food choice and acceptance. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1998, 57, 639–643.
  18. WHO. Promoting Fruit and Vegetable Consumption around the World. Available online: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/fruit/en/ (accessed on 19 November 2021).
  19. Taylor, J. Overview: Importance of sorghum in Africa. In Proceedings of the Afripro: Workshop on the Proteins of Sorghum and Millets: Enhancing Nutritional and Functional Properties for Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 2–4 April 2003.
  20. Fotopoulos, C.; Krystallis, A.; Vassallo, M.; Pagiaslis, A. Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) revisited. Suggestions for the development of an enhanced general food motivation model. Appetite 2009, 52, 199–208.
  21. Januszewska, R.; Pieniak, Z.; Verbeke, W. Food choice questionnaire revisited in four countries. Does it still measure the same? Appetite 2011, 57, 94–98.
  22. Hinds, M.J.; Beuchat, L.R.; Chinnan, M.S. Properties of a thermal-processed beverage prepared from roasted partially defatted peanuts. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 1997, 32, 203–211.
  23. Deshpande, R.; Chinnan, M.; McWatters, K. Optimization of a chocolate-flavored, peanut–soy beverage using response surface methodology (RSM) as applied to consumer acceptability data. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41, 1485–1492.
  24. Howard, B.M.; Hung, Y.C.; McWatters, S.K. Analysis of ingredient functionality and formulation optimization of an instant peanut beverage mix. J. Food Sci. 2010, 75, S8–S19.
  25. Chompreeda, P.; Haruthaithanasan, V.; Oupadissakoon, C.; Suknak, K. Development of a chocolate flavored peanut beverage. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54, 1359–1360.
  26. Rustom, I.; López-Leiva, M.; Nair, B.M. UHT-Sterilized Peanut Beverages: Kinetics of Physicochemical Changes during Storage and Shelf-Life Prediction Modeling. J. Food Sci. 1996, 61, 198–203.
  27. Gama, A.P.; Hung, Y.-C.; Adhikari, K. Optimization of emulsifier and stabilizer concentrations in a model Peanut-Based beverage system: A mixture design approach. Foods 2019, 8, 116.
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Subjects: Food Science & Technology
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Update Date: 28 Jan 2022
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