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Artés-Hernández, F. By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18086 (accessed on 13 December 2025).
Artés-Hernández F. By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18086. Accessed December 13, 2025.
Artés-Hernández, Francisco. "By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18086 (accessed December 13, 2025).
Artés-Hernández, F. (2022, January 11). By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18086
Artés-Hernández, Francisco. "By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals." Encyclopedia. Web. 11 January, 2022.
By-products revalorization with non-thermal treatments to enhace phytochemicals
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods11010059

The thermal instability of bioactive compounds, which induces a reduction of the content, has led to research and development during recent decades of non-thermal innovative technologies to preserve such nutraceuticals. Therefore, ultrasounds, light stresses, enzyme assisted treatment, fermentation, electro-technologies and high pressure, among others, have been developed and improved. Scientific evidence of F&V by-products application in food, pharmacologic and cosmetic products, and packaging materials were also found. Among food applications, it could be mentioned as enriched minimally processed fruits, beverages and purees fortification, healthier and “clean label” bakery and confectionary products, intelligent food packaging, and edible coatings. Future investigations should be focused on the optimization of ‘green’ non-thermal and sustainable-technologies on the F&V by-products’ key compounds for the full-utilization of raw material in the food industry. 

zero waste bioactive compounds green technologies nutraceuticals circular economy

1. Introduction

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations indicates that around a third of all food production is globally lost or wasted at some point in the food chain [1][2]. Losses vary a lot depending on the chain considered and in the case of fruit and vegetables (F&V) can reach up to 50%. Within the F&V processing operations about 25% to 30% of waste is produced [3]. The most important causes of losses on farms include inappropriate timing for harvesting, overproduction, underutilized products, climatic conditions, harvesting and handling practices, and inadequate postharvest technology [4]. At the World Food Summit held in 2017 organized by FAO, the challenges needed to achieve food stability and food availability were identified and a roadmap was proposed to reduce 50% of food waste by 2050. The principles of eco-innovation are the industrial ecology and the circular economy (“zero waste” and the use of wastes as raw materials) [5]. Among the challenges that arise different actions stand out, such as the revaluation of waste in the various stages of the production process and logistics, and/or the use of waste products (by-products) as starting raw material for the production of products with greater added value [6] and then called co-products.
The handling and processing of these raw materials generates a large number of commodity by-products being undervalued and underused, and although there are some minor uses such as the production of biomass and animal feed, these strategies do not guarantee an efficient use of this material that could offer interesting possibilities for the agri-food industry and the reduction of this environmental problem [2][7]. Horticultural by-products mainly are peels, pomace and seeds, which could be a potential good source of bioactive compounds with high added-value such as pectins, proteins, polysaccharides, flavor compounds, dietary fibers, and phytochemicals compounds [8]. To continue being relevant, it is necessary to further strengthen and dynamize the sector through the development of appropriate postharvest strategies to increase shelf life, and a model for the enhancement of horticultural by-products through the incorporation of emerging and sustainable ‘Green Technologies’ to its revalorization [9]. The strategies to revalue horticultural by-products can lead to a change in the productive model of the sector and evolve towards a more diversified and sustainable circular economy, giving more added value and competitiveness. These strategies can be focused on obtaining potential ingredients for the food industry, cosmetics, and/or the pharmaceutical industry. The use of plant by-products supports the low-carbon economy by using renewable resources, offering environmental and economic benefits and improving efficiency in the food industry [7][10].
Nowadays, the tendency in the food market is driven by different reasons such as health and sustainability. This phenomenon is expressed in the consumer’s interest in healthy natural foods based on plant products. Food producers are increasingly striving to meet these trends by offering “Clean label” foods or ingredients. Currently, there is no legislation related to the aforementioned concept, but the growing demand for this type of food reflects the desire of consumers for food to be more “natural”, wholesome, premium, and use environmentally friendly technologies [11][12]. The extracts obtained from F&V by-products can fulfill a series of technological functions such as being colorants, antioxidants, flavors or antimicrobial agents, or act directly as ingredients to enrich or improve the functional properties of some food becoming a supplemented or fortified commodity [8][13][14][15][16].

2. Potential and Innovative Non-Thermal Techniques for Revalorization of Fruit & Vegetables By-Products

Due to the thermal instability of compounds (which means a reduction of their concentration level), non-thermal innovative technologies have been increasing during last decades [17], such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, high-pressure processing, light stresses, fermentation technology, electro-technologies, and enzyme-assisted extraction, among others [18][19]. Most of them are focused on the recovery of the above-mentioned compounds related to revalorization of F&V by-products [9][20]. Recovering of bioactive phytochemicals from F&V waste by non-thermal processes could improve the efficient production of potential bioactive ingredients [21].

2.1. Electro-Technologies: Pulses Electric Fields

Pulses Electric Fields (PEF) consist of subjecting the selected material to the intermittent application (<300 Hz) of electric fields at moderate-high intensity (0.1–20 kV/cm) and short duration (µs to ms) [22]. The main characteristic is the application of electric field pulsing on plant matrices that induces electro permeabilization (formation of located pores in cell membranes of cells), and the effect mainly depends on medium composition (conductivity) [23]. PEF technology has been defined as technology which requires fewer resources to produce nutritional with optimal sensory characteristics and longer shelf lives of products such as hummus, smoothies and juices [24]. Related to recovery bioactive compounds from F&V by-products, it enhances the specific recovery of bioactive intracellular compounds without increasing temperature or/and damaging the structure of the matrix. The obtained result depends on treatment intensity, physicochemical properties of the matrix and the tissues and cells composition. If the combination of the variables is optimized, reversible electroporation could occur (the membrane can return to its original state once the electric field application has finished) [22][25][26]. It is important to highlight that recent study indicated that pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment needs an optimization for more selective, quicker, and sustainable bio-active compounds extraction in the food industry [26]. Therefore, recent information about the optimal conditions of PEF were included in Tables 1–3.

2.2. Enzyme-Assisted Extraction

A novel green and non-thermal technology, enzyme-assisted technology, for bioactive compounds extraction such as phenolics and pectin has been developed during last decades for cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food applications. It is essential to highlight that enzyme-assisted extraction allows the use of F&V by-products providing a novel chance to give added-value to F&V waste [27]. The fundamental mechanism of the pectin, polyphenols, and pigments enzyme-assisted extraction from F&V by-products is based on the cell-wall degrading enzymes. These enzymes weaken, degrade partially or/and break down the cell wall polysaccharides, enhancing the possibility of the extraction of those compounds [28].

2.3. Fermentation

Fermentative processes can be classified according to different criteria. One of the most common is the group of batch fermentations which is based on the addition of the substrate and the key microorganism in the system at time zero. The produced key compounds cannot be obtained until the process is complete [29]. On the other hand, continuous and fed-batch fermentations microorganisms present another mechanism. The system can be reutilized for several batches, increasing its efficiency. In general, the industrial fermentations take place in liquid media, but sometimes solid-state fermentations microorganisms are applied. Related to fermentations and revalorizations of F&V by-products (fermentation-based valorization strategies), it has been recently developed the fermentation of date palm waste to produce lactic acid [30][31] and bioconversion of cocoa by-products using different microorganisms to obtain key enzymes, among other bioactive compounds [31][32].

2.4. High Hydrostatic Pressure

High Hydrostatic Pressure (HPP) is one of the non-thermal pasteurization processing technologies which is widely applied in the food industry [18][19]. It is a processing technique that uses a range of pressure from 100 to 900 MPa to increase shelf-life of the products due to the inactivation and elimination of microorganisms. The pressure can be applied through direct pressure and indirect pressure. HPP induces high pressure which causes severe damage to plant cells and leads to the diffusion of solvents and enhances the mass transfer and release of the extracts [33]. The uniformity of the pressure application is maintained during the process and it does not depend on the product size and geometry. It has been reported that this technique avoids no-desirable effects on texture characteristics. Moreover, this technique does not reach high temperatures, then protect characteristic flavor notes, color pigments nutrients, and antioxidant bioactive compounds which are degraded at high temperatures [34].

2.5. Light Stress

Plant by-products have been proposed as bio-factories of bioactive compounds through different induced postharvest abiotic stress mechanisms. Among them, one of the most promising techniques appears to be UV radiation, the spectrum is divided into three regions: UV-A (wavelength 320 to 400 nm), UV-B (wavelength 280 to 320 nm) and UV- C (wavelength 220–280 nm). The use of UV technology during post-harvest is an emerging technology to enhance the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds in the F&V industry, respectful with the environment, without generating waste [35][36]. The application of UV-B, alone or in combination with UV-C, has not been widely studied as a revalorization tool for maintaining and/or increasing the main key compounds in F&V by-products [37]. Although light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly adopted for the production of several vegetable modalities and for quality preservation during storage [38], influencing the metabolic pathways (biosynthesis of several bioactive compounds) [39][40][41]. No published information is already available concerning the effect of this light stress in F&V by-products. Recently, it has been concluded that a combination of different light stress techniques (UV-B + LEDs) could be a good strategy to enhance the bioactive compounds in commodities, being a potential tool for by-products revalorization [39].

2.6. Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a recent extraction technique, and it is based on the use of the critical point of the solvent during the extraction. The combination of gas mass transfer and liquid solvation properties allows a high transfer mass (diffusion coefficients) than working below critical point. The majority of SFE studies have focused on the use of CO2 due to its characteristics (non-toxic and cheap and can be easily removed after extraction) [42].

2.7. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)

Ultrasonication is an emerging non-thermal and green technology in the food sector, although it has been previously established in other sectors such as pharmacological. The fundamentals are based on the mechanical impact of the ultrasound waves, allowing deeper penetration of the solvent into the matrix (“sponge effect”) [23]. Ultrasonication can be used with different doses (frequencies and time), which are classified as: (i) low-frequency (20 kHz–100 kHz); (ii) medium-frequency (100 kHz–1 MHz); and high-frequency ultrasonication (1 MHz–100 MHz) [43][44]. In food processing, the most common frequency range for the extraction of bioactive compounds and intensified synthesis is 20 kHz–100 kHz [18][19][45].

References

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