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Zhao, M. Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17545 (accessed on 30 November 2023).
Zhao M. Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17545. Accessed November 30, 2023.
Zhao, Min. "Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17545 (accessed November 30, 2023).
Zhao, M.(2021, December 24). Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17545
Zhao, Min. "Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety." Encyclopedia. Web. 24 December, 2021.
Edible Aquatic Insects: Diversities, Nutrition, and Safety
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods10123033

Edible insects have great potential to be human food; among them, aquatic insects have unique characteristics. In contrast with the role of plant feeders that most terrestrial edible insect species play, most aquatic edible insects are carnivorous animals. Besides the differences in physiology and metabolism, there are differences in fat, fatty acid, limiting/flavor amino acid, and mineral element contents between terrestrial and aquatic insects.

entomophagy terrestrial insects health benefits contaminant

1. Introduction

Entomophagy has decreased significantly with the development of modern agriculture; however, it still exists and plays important roles in the lives of people in underdeveloped areas. In recent years, considering their outstanding source of nutrition [1], low levels of greenhouse gas emissions [2], limited agricultural land being required [3], and potential socio-economic benefits, edible insects have been considered as valuable and sustainable alternative nutrition sources for food security [4]. The topics of “edible insects as food candidates” or “insects as an alternative protein source” have received a huge amount of attention [5][6]. 

2. Aquatic Insects and Its Resource as Food and Feed

Aquatic insects have very rich species diversity, though aquatic insects represent only 10% of the insect species and only include 12 orders [7][8], and they share some of the same orders with terrestrial insects taxonomically. The relevant biology, natural habitats, and comparisons of aquatic insect orders have been well summarized by D. Dudley Williams and Siân S. Williams [7]. Six of the 12 orders of aquatic insects are likely to contain candidate species for food and feed [7][9][10]. They are Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (true flies), Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Hemiptera (true bugs), Odonata (dragonflies/damselflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). Judging from the research and utilization reports from Southwest China and Japan, the order Megaloptera has the potential to be a candidate species, because it has been used as food and folk medicine for a long time, with remarkable economic value [11][12]. The insects are widely distributed all around the world, and its breeding technology of some species has gradually matured [13][14].

3. Nutritional and Health Benefits of Edible Aquatic Insects

3.1. Protein Content and Amino Acid Composition of Aquatic Insects

Aquatic insects have an average protein content of 59.55% (Table 1), and this value is higher than that of conventional animal meats [15][16][17]. Furthermore, investigations identified that proteins from aquatic insects not only contain 45.93–62.01% essential amino acids (Table 1), but also have a good balance of different kinds of amino acids [18][19]. Meanwhile, the ratio of essential amino acids in aquatic insect proteins is close to human proteins, indicating a high nutritional value of aquatic insects [20].

Although some studies have shown that the contents of some amino acids are different between aquatic and terrestrial insects, such as tryptophan [21], the difference is not significant judging from the average data, and this indicates that aquatic insects and terrestrial insects have similar amino acid compositions (Table 1). For example, Lys is present in both terrestrial edible insects and aquatic edible insects, with a rich content [22]. However, this essential amino acid is usually lacking in cereal protein, so both aquatic insects and terrestrial insects complement cereal protein in nutrition.

Table 1. Amino acid composition of edible aquatic insects and selected edible terrestrial insects.
Order Species Edvelopmental Stage Protein
(%)		 Amino Acid Composition (% of Total Amino Acids or Protein) Total Amino Acids
(g/100 g DM)		 Reference
Val Ile Leu Lys Tyr Thr Phe Trp His Met + Cys Total EAA ++ Arg Asp Ser Glu Gly Ala Pro
Edible aquatic insects  
Odonata Epophthalmia elegans L 65.23 9.96 2.78 6.43 5.62 7.06 3.84 9.26 0.58 3.74 1.63 50.90 11.79 6.91 3.94 10.92 4.42 5.97 5.15 60.16 [23]
Anax parthenope L 65.76 10.04 3.20 6.96 5.72 6.96 3.87 8.82 0.63 3.20 1.13 50.55 11.91 7.04 4.09 10.84 4.32 5.93 5.33 53.99
Ictinogomphus rapax L 62.37 10.08 3.54 7.05 4.62 7.77 4.24 12.12 0.50 3.09 1.44 54.45 9.92 6.99 3.97 8.30 4.84 6.85 4.67 55.63
Sinictinogomphus clavatus L 63.64 9.55 3.51 7.19 5.42 7.64 4.32 10.51 0.53 2.89 1.66 53.23 9.95 7.74 4.00 9.32 4.91 5.98 4.87 52.98
Pantala flavescens L 65.18 9.78 3.30 7.20 5.97 6.48 4.06 8.61 0.65 2.87 1.32 50.26 12.47 7.38 4.07 10.73 4.64 6.00 4.45 58.16
Orthetrum pruinosum L 71.53 9.63 3.33 7.11 5.85 6.43 3.86 8.68 0.46 2.78 1.90 50.01 12.00 7.38 4.02 11.11 4.39 5.81 5.28 54.73
Crocothemis servilia L 65.45 6.12 3.91 7.45 7.93 6.23 5.25 2.88 2.20 5.45 3.77 51.18 8.04 8.47 4.26 10.99 5.03 7.31 4.72 51.70 [24]
Gomphus cuneatus L 64.64 6.59 7.33 3.96 6.33 7.17 4.79 3.37 0.67 6.93 4.07 51.21 4.86 6.34 4.32 14.40 5.46 7.85 5.61 50.26
Lestes praemorsus L 46.37 6.01 6.96 4.16 8.37 7.26 4.98 3.22 5.23 6.54 2.72 55.44 8.54 6.41 4.20 13.36 4.45 7.26 5.23 36.1
Ephemeroptera Ephermeterella jianghongensis L 66.26 5.75 5.29 8.51 5.51 6.00 4.88 3.27 - 3.33 3.39 45.93 5.75 8.71 4.55 15.21 4.96 9.15 5.74 65.54 [25]
Coleptera Cybister japonicus L 57.34 6.33 14.18 11.96 5.14 1.06 3.95 4.53 - 4.32 2.76 54.23 6.45 8.44 4.47 8.62 8.14 7.12 2.53 47.89 [26]
Dytiscus dauricus L 57.97 6.50 12.06 11.82 5.91 1.89 4.43 3.61 - 3.75 3.12 53.10 5.72 8.88 4.92 9.11 7.76 8.43 2.07 48.74
Hydrophilus acminatus L 56.41 6.12 11.24 12.16 7.08 1.19 4.14 3.28 - 3.30 2.74 51.25 4.87 10.01 4.76 8.98 8.04 7.25 2.74 47.86
H. acminatus L 20.37 5.76 4.38 7.59 6.89 5.11 4.26 4.33 - 6.42 2.74 47.48 5.76 9.56 3.56 9.25 8.08 10.38 5.93 42.69 [27]
Megaloptera Acanthacorydalis orientalis L 56.56 5.63 5.61 6.96 6.25 5.76 4.88 4.39 - 4.18 2.89 46.54 6.75 10.13 4.11 17.13 5.14 5.74 4.46 53.31 [25]
  Acanthacory dalisasiatice A - 7.58 5.58 9.00 7.08 9.81 4.13 10.61 - 4.02 4.21 62.01 3.90 11.73 7.69 - - 14.34 - 52.01 [28]
  Neochauliodes sparsus L 67.69 6.35 4.75 7.41 7.43 6.10 4.55 4.21 0.70 4.27 3.82 49.59 7.23 9.09 4.25 12.73 4.80 7.41 4.91 56.02 [29]
Edible terrestrial insects  
Hymenoptera Polybia occidentalis nigratella B 61.00 5.90 4.50 7.80 7.40 5.60 4.00 3.30 0.70 3.00 5.00 47.20 5.70 8.40 4.50 12.90 7.10 6.50 6.30 - [30]
  Polybia parvulina B 61.00 6.10 4.70 7.80 7.30 5.90 4.10 3.40 0.70 3.40 5.30 48.70 5.70 7.80 4.40 13.30 7.20 6.40 6.50 -  
  Vespa velutina B - 6.10 5.50 8.70 6.10 6.60 4.20 4.20 - 4.20 2.40 47.00 4.50 6.30 6.30 20.10 6.30 5.50 6.10 37.90 [31]
  V. mandarinia B - 6.30 5.70 8.70 6.30 7.30 4.30 4.30 - 4.30 2.70 48.90 2.20 6.50 6.50 21.20 6.30 5.40 5.70 36.80  
  V. basalis B - 5.70 5.30 8.50 6.80 7.10 4.30 4.30 - 4.30 1.40 46.60 4.30 6.40 6.40 22.10 5.70 5.00 5.70 28.10  
Coleoptera Allomyrina dichotoma L 54.18 5.58 4.35 6.40 4.97 7.73 3.84 3.59 - 4.82 8.92 50.21 5.29 5.46 5.95 17.83 5.70 4.51 5.05 48.74 [17]
  Protaetia brevitarsis L 44.23 6.36 4.14 5.90 4.47 8.43 3.96 4.14 - 4.65 7.51 49.54 5.34 5.77 6.51 14.15 5.72 6.23 6.72 39.16  
  Tenebrio molitor L 53.22 6.61 4.45 7.57 4.52 7.75 4.11 3.96 - 6.29 7.10 52.36 5.01 6.20 4.94 12.99 5.87 8.90 3.73 44.50  
Orthoptera Teleogryllus emma A 55.65 5.85 4.30 7.93 5.23 5.23 3.84 3.58 - 4.82 7.63 48.41 7.43 7.71 5.91 13.03 5.09 9.19 3.24 49.95  
  Gryllus bimaculatus A 58.32 5.94 4.01 7.38 4.50 5.07 3.72 3.40 - 4.64 9.98 48.63 6.69 6.69 5.07 11.87 6.17 10.48 3.70 53.83  
Lepidoptera Antheraea pernyi P 71.9 6.63 7.95 3.24 4.54 2.06 4.64 8.10 4.05 2.94 1.62 45.77 4.12 6.41 4.64 12.74 4.42 6.26 12.22 - [32]
  Bombyx mori P - 5.60 5.70 8.30 7.50 5.40 5.40 5.10 9.00 2.50 6.00 60.50 6.80 10.90 4.70 14.90 4.60 5.50 4.00 -  
Note: L = larva, P = pupa, A = adult, B = brood; DM = dry matter; “-” = not determined or not estimated; ++ EAA: essential amino acids; essential amino acids (Val, Ile, Leu, Lys, Thr, Trp, Phe, His, Met) and two conditional essential amino acids (Tyr, Cys) are included.

3.2. Characteristics of Fatty Acids in Aquatic Insects

As the second most abundant nutritional ingredient (only behind the protein content), fatty acids always play a crucial role in the growth and development of insects [33]. It is strongly believed that aquatic insects are also a rich source of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially PUFAs, such as linoleic acid (18:2), linolenic acid (18:3), arachidonic acid (20:4, AA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, EPA) [34][35]. In general, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, AA, and EPA belong to the omega-6 or omega-3 fatty acid family, which are beneficial to the health of human beings and must be obtained from the diet [36].

3.3. Characteristics of Mineral Elements in Aquatic Insects

Minerals are particularly rich in insect-based foods [37][38], which indicate that insect-based foods are excellent mineral providers [39]; for example, both aquatic and terrestrial insects have higher contents of calcium, iron, and zinc compared with common meat [17].
When edible insects are divided into aquatic insects and terrestrial insects, the difference in their mineral element contents shows great heterogeneity in different studies. Sometimes, aquatic and terrestrial insects have similar elemental compositions [40]; for example, they have almost the same concentration of zinc [15][41]. However, for calcium and iron contents, studies have shown that there is a considerable gap between aquatic and terrestrial insects. 

3.4. Chitin and Chitosan

Chitin is a significant biopolymer [42], and chitosan is formed by the deacetylation of chitin. They could be used in food, biomedical and cosmetic industries, and for wastewater treatment and textiles. Up to date, crustacean shells from the marine food industry provide us with the chief commercial sources of chitin and chitosan [42][43]. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, biopolymer materials have been increasingly in demand, and the market for chitin and chitosan is growing steadily [43].
Chitin is found throughout the exoskeletons of most insects. In recent years, some terrestrial insect species have been investigated as alternative chitin sources [44][45][46], since insects were considered as a potential resources of food. As compared to the existing sources, the extraction of chitin and chitosan from insects is simple, requires less chemical consumption and time, and they can be extracted in a higher yield [43]. Moreover, insect-derived chitin and chitosan have numerous biological effects, such as antioxidant and antibacterial activities with substantial rheological properties [44][45].

3.5. Active Substances and Healthcare

Edible insects are considered to have superior health benefits, due to their high quantities of nutrients, such as essential amino acids, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, vitamin B12, iron, and zinc [47][48][49]. In addition to the health benefits of edible insect nutrients, the rich active substances in edible aquatic insects have also attracted attention [50]. Edible aquatic insects, such as dragonflies, water strider, and whirligig beetle, have been used in healthcare or for treating human diseases since the ancient times [51][52][53], especially in the countries of East Asia [54], e.g., China, Japan, and South Korea. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine is that the larva of aquatic insects has the effects of boosting the kidney, nourishing essence, moisturizing the lungs, and relieving coughs [55]. They can be used alone or in combination with other materials for medical applications; for example, the whole body of a dried adult dragonfly can be used to treat impotence and nocturnal emission, sore throat, and whooping cough [56]. It is believed that Cybister tripunctatus, or C. japonicus, can reinforce kidney function and invigorate the circulation of blood in human beings [55]. These traditional practices of edible aquatic insects also provide ideas for the exploitation of modern drugs [57].

4. Safety in Utilization of Edible Aquatic Insects

4.1. Contaminant

Heavy metals. Heavy metal pollution in the freshwater ecosystem poses a great threat to the growth of aquatic insects [58][59]; therefore, there is a growing concern that it will eventually affect the health of humans [60][61]. Up to date, over 33 metallic elements of aquatic edible insects have been detected, and heavy metals, such as Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cr, have attracted serious concern [62]. Most of the metals in nature will enter the water, and the aquatic ecosystem plays an important role in the transfer and circulation of metals. Insects could absorb metal elements and accumulate a higher concentration of them than the environment [63]. The degree of metal element absorption by aquatic insects is related to environmental factors; for example, aquatic insects collected near wastewater treatment plants, or near mines, may show higher metallic element concentrations when compared with other sites [64][65].

Pathogen. Aquatic insects are important vectors (e.g., malaria) of environmental pathogens. Mainly originating from the Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus, the viral encephalitis in Southeast Asia was detected in Culex gelidus in 1976 [66]. Aquatic insects are possible vectors of Mycobacterium ulcerans, which causes chronic skin ulcers in tropical countries [67]. Two conditioned pathogens, Lelliottia amnigena and Citrobacter freundii, were detected from edible aquatic insects of the genus Cybister [68].

4.2. Purine Derivatives and Uric Acid

Uric acid serves as an antioxidant, and is important for protecting human blood vessels. It is metabolized from purines [69], which are important nucleic acid components in all organisms. However, increasing numbers of people are suffering from hyperuricemia, gout, and other disease caused by frequent and high intake of purine-rich and protein-rich foods, which enhances serum uric acid levels. An important way to treat people with hyperuricemia or gout is dietary restriction of purine-rich foods [70][71].

4.3. Allergy

Seafood is an important origin of allergies, and, thus, has attracted attention as a food safety issue. Similarly, most known edible insect allergens have cross-reactivity with homologous proteins in shellfish [72]; therefore, enough attention should be paid to the insect allergy too. At present, all the reported cases of insect allergies are from terrestrial insects, such as silkworm, mealworm, caterpillars, wasps, grasshoppers, cicada, and bees [73].

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Min Zhao
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