Four Recommended Asian Vegetables in Europe

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/horticulturae6030038

Carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds in vegetables may prevent and counter many common diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, vision loss, heart disease, and several intestinal disorders. Increasing longevity, along with an aging population in Europe, has caused serious concerns about diet-related chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers. The European market for fresh Asian vegetables is expected to expand across the EU member states, and the introduction of new vegetables has enormous potential.

health aging population consumption of fruit and vegetables diversification market trend Korean ginseng sprout Ssamchoo Peucedanum japonicum Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem

1. Introduction

Health and well-being are important factors of a modern lifestyle. The health conditions of individuals and households have economic significance for both developing and developed countries, including the EU member states ^[1]. Additionally, an aging population is considered a significant challenge in the coming decades for the European Union ^[2]. Worldwide chronic diseases are increasing as leading causes of death every year, with scientific evidence linking these chronic diseases to diet ^[3]. These diet-related chronic diseases include obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), and certain cancers ^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6].

Carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds in vegetables may prevent and counter many common diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, vision loss, heart disease, and several intestinal disorders. The link between fruit and vegetable consumption and a lower risk of mortality has been increasing ^[7]^[8]^[9]. Cardiovascular mortality may notably decrease with high consumption of fruit and vegetables ^[10]. It was also noticed that not only the elderly and chronic disease sufferers, but also smokers and alcohol drinkers were in the high-risk patient group during the Covid-19 pandemic.

2. Vegetable Consumption in Europe

According to Shahbaz et al. ^[11], vegetables provide a variety of health benefits. They are generally low in fat and calories yet rich in vitamins and dietary fibers. Moreover, they present a valuable source of mineral nutrients, essential amino acids, antioxidants and phytochemicals such as carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other phenolic compounds.

Besides the nutritional attributes, vegetables also provide a diverse range of taste, aroma, texture, and color, which significantly increase the variety in food and satisfy a myriad of personal preferences ^[12]. Although increased daily vegetable intake has been recommended for health benefits, and the EU has made efforts to advocate it, European vegetable consumption remains below the recommended level ^[13]^[14]^[15]

3. The Potential for the Introduction of New Asian Vegetables in Europe and the Market Trends

The consumption of fresh vegetables in the EU is barely increasing, and the European vegetable market is highly competitive. However, the current demand for healthy, high-quality and attractive exotic vegetables is growing steadily. Therefore, the market for fresh Asian vegetables has the potential to expand across the EU member states. But, how can we define Asian vegetables?

The meaning of “Asian vegetables” varies and the term is often used ambiguously as “Oriental vegetables” in literature. Asian vegetables can be defined as vegetables that have originated, are cultivated or are commonly consumed in Northeast Asia (China, Korea, and Japan) or in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Malaysia). In this study, we will use the term Asian vegetables to mean the vegetables from both regions.

A list of Asian vegetables is provided in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6. In the list, some well-known vegetables that can be found in other countries are not included, such as onions (Allium cepa), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) even though they are commonly used in Asian cuisines. However, we still included these vegetables if they are unique from their western counterparts, such as Asian green onions (Allium fistulosum), Japanese pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), and Korean zucchini (Cucurbita moschata). Native Asian vegetables such as soybeans and Chinese cabbage are also included.

Table 1. Sprout vegetables.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	References
Mung bean sprouts/Mungo bean sprouts/Small bean sprouts	Phaseolus aureus/Vigna radiata	sprouts	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[18]	Soybean sprouts	Glycine hispida/G. max	sprouts	blanched, boiled	^[16]^[17]^[18]

Table 2. Tree vegetables.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	References
Aralia sprout/Dureup/Fatsia sprout/Korean angelica tree	Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem./Aralia elata var. elata	young shoots	blanched, pickled	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Alangium/Trilobed-leaf alangium	Alangium platanifolium var. trilobum (Miq.) Ohwi	young leaves	eaten raw young leaves, blanched, pickled	^[17]^[20]
Bamboo shoot	Bambusa spp./Bambusa sp./Dendrocalamus sp./Phyllostachys sp.	young shoots	blanched, boiled, pickled, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[18]	Ginkgo nut	Ginkgo biloba	seeds	cooked, grilled	^[17]
Burning bush spindle tree	Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold	young shoots	blanched	^[17]	Blue Japanese oak acorn/Ring-cup oak acorn	Quercus glauca Thunb.	acorns	its starch is cooked and made jelly	^[17]^[20]
Chinese cedar	Cedrela sinensis Juss.	young shoots	blanched, pickled, deep fried	^[17]^[19]	Konara oak acorn	Quercus serrata Murray	acorns	its starch is cooked and made jelly	^[17]^[20]
Devil’s bush/Siberian-ginseng	Eleutherococcus senticosus	young shoots	blanched	^[17]^[20]	Sansho pepper/Sichuan pepper	Zanthoxylum sp.	husks of seeds	adding in stews, foods, oiled	^[21]
Matrimony-vine	Lycium chinense	young shoots	blanched young leaf buds	^[16]^[17]	East Asian arrow root/Kudzu	Dolichos japonica/Pueraria hirsute/P. lobata (Willd.) Ohwi/P. thunbergiana/	roots	eaten raw, made juice, dried and boiled tea, made jelly, powdered	^[16]^[17]^[20]
Sayur manis/weet leaf bush	Sauropus androgynus	shoot tips, young leaves	steamed, grilled, cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[18]

Table 3. Leaf and Stem Vegetables.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	References
Asian goldenrod	Solidago virgaurea subsp. asiatica Kitam. ex H. Hara	young shoots	blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Komatsuna	Brassica rapa var. komatsuna/var. perviridis	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, stir-fried, boiled, pickled, cooked in soups	^[21]
Asian royal fern/Royal fern	Osmunda japonica Thunb.	young shoots	boiled, stir-fried	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Korean cabbage/Ssamchoo	Brassica lee ssp. namai cv. Ssamchoo	leaves, stalks	eaten raw	^[17]
Bracken/Eastern brakenfern/Tender fern fronds	Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. ex A.Heller	young shoots	boiled, stir-fried	^[16]^[19]^[20]	Mibuna greens	Brassica rapa var. japonica/var. nipposinica	leaves, stalks	eaten raw	^[21]
Edible aster/Rough aster	Aster scaber Thunberg	young shoots	eaten raw	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Mizuna greens/Potherb-mustard cabbage	Brassica rapa var. japonica/var. nipposinica	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[16]^[21]
Fulvous daylily	Hemerocallis fulva L.	young shoots	blanched	^[17]^[19]	Sweet potato	Ipomoea batatas	leaves, stalks	blanched	^[17]
Japanese spikenard/Manchurian spikenard/Mountain asparagus/Udo	Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu	young shoots	blanched, deep fried, cooked as pancakes	^[17]^[21]	Turnip greens	Brassica rapa	leaves, stalks	boiled, stir-fried, salted	^[16]^[17]
Pea shoots	Pisum sativum	young shoots	stir-fried	^[21]	Chinese taro/Japanese taro/Taro	Colocasia esculenta	stalks	boiled, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]
Tartarian aster/Tatarinow’s aster	Aster tataricus L. f.	young shoots	blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Citronella grass/Lemon grass	Cymbopogon citratus	stalks	cooked in curries, soups	^[21]
Water shield	Brasenia schreberi J.F.Gmelin	young shoots	eaten raw, cooked in soups, dried, grounded	^[21]^[20]	Sweet potato	Ipomoea batatas	stalks	blanched, stir-fried, salted	^[16]
Hot pepper	Capsicum annuum	young shoots, leaves	Blanched, cooked in soups and in pancakes	^[17]	Amaranthus/Chinese spinach/Edible amaranth/Pig weed	Amaranthus gangeticus/A. mangostanus L./A. tricolor	young leaves, stems	blanched, stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]^[20]
Komarov’s Russian thistle/Okahijiki	Salsola komarovii Iljin	young shoots, leaves	eaten raw, blanched, steamed	^[21]^[20]	Ashitaba	Angelica keiskei	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, cooked in pancakes, pickled	^[17]^[19]
Korean-mint	Agastache rugosa	young shoots, leaves	eaten raw young leaves, blanched, cooked in soups, as pancakes	^[17]	Coastal hog fennel	Peucedanum japonicum Thunb.	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, pickled, blanched, deep fried	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Okinawan spinach/Velvet plant	Gynura bicolor	young shoots, leaves	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried, deep-fried, cooked in soups, stews	^[21]	Curled mallow/Mallows	Malva verticillata/M. verticillata var. crispa L.	young leaves, stems	cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[17]^[19]^[21]
Stringy stonecrop	Sedum sarmentosum	young shoots, leaves	eaten raw	^[17]^[19]	East Asian hogweed	Heracleum moellendorffii Hance	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, pickled, stir-fried	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Ceylon spinach/Malabar nightshade/Tsurumurasaki	Basella alba/B. cordifolia B. rubra/	shoots, leaves	stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[16]^[21]^[18]	Field aster	Aster yomena (Kitam.) Honda	young leaves, stems	blanched, stir-fried, cooked in soups, deep fried	^[17]^[20]
Castor	Ricinus communis L.	young leaves	blanched	^[17]	Gondre/Korean thistle	Cirsium setidens (Dunn) Nakai	young leaves, stems	cooked in soups, pickled, dried leaves are cooked as side dishes	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Mugwort	Artemesia spp./A. princeps Pampanini/A. vulgaris	young leaves	cooked in soups, in rice cakes, pancakes	^[16]^[21]^[18]	Green garlic	Allium sativum	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, steamed, pickled	^[17]
Chinese chives/Flat chives/Garlic chives	Allium senescens/A. senescens var. minor/A. thunbergii/A. tuberosum	leaves	eaten raw, stir-fried, pickled, cooked in pancakes	^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Japanese angelica	Ligusticum acutilobum	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, pickled	^[17]
Perilla	Perilla frutescens	leaves	eaten raw, pickled, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[21]	Japanese atractylodes/Ovate-leaf atractylodes	Atractylodes japonica/A. ovata (Thunb.) DC.	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, cooked in pancakes	^[17]^[20]
Soybean	Glycine max (L.) Merr.	leaves	blanched, pickled, salted	^[17]	Lesser solomon’s seal/Solomon’s seal	Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi	young leaves, stems	pickled	^[17]^[20]
Asian plantain	Plantago asiatica L.	young leaves, stalks	blanched, cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[17]^[20]	Riverside wormwood/Selenge wormwood	Artemisia selengensis Turcz. ex Besser	young leaves, stems	blanched	^[17]^[20]
Butterbur/Giant butterbur/Sweet coltsfoot/	Petasites japonicus (Siebold & Zucc.) Maxim.	young leaves, stalks	blanched, pickled	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[20]	Swamp cabbage/Water convolvulus/Water spinach	Ipomoea aquatica/I. reptans	young leaves, stems	Eaten raw, blanched, boiled, stir-fried	^[16]^[21]^[18]
Chamnamul/Short-fruit pimpinella	Pimpinella brachycarpa (Kom.) Nakai	young leaves, stalks	blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Three-leaf ladybell	Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (Regel) H. Hara	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched	^[17]^[20]
Deltoid synurus	Synurus deltoides (Aiton) Nakai	young leaves, stalks	blanched, cooked in rice cakes	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Ulleungdo aster	Aster glehnii F.Schmidt	young leaves, stems	blanched, deep fried	^[17]^[20]
Fischer’s ragwort/Gomchwi	Ligularia fischeri (Ledeb.) Turcz.	young leaves, stalks	eaten raw, cooked in soups, picked, blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Water celery/Water dropwort/Water parsley	Oenanthe javanica/O. stolonifera/	young leaves, stems	eaten raw, blanched, cooked in soups, as pancake	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]
Honewort/Mitsuba	Cryptotaenia canadensis	young leaves, stalks	eaten raw, stir-fried, deep fired, cooked in soups	^[16]	Chinese broccoli/Chinese kale	Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra	leaves, stems	boiled, steamed, stir-fried	^[16]^[21]^[18]
Korean bellflower	Campanula takesimana Nakai	young leaves, stalks	blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Chrysanthemum/Chrysanthemum greens/Crown daisy/Garland chrysanthemum	Chrysanthemum coronarium	leaves, stems	eaten raw, cooked in stews, blanched	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]
Narrow spiked Ligularia/Narrow-head ragwort	Ligularia stenocephala (Maxim.) Matsum. & Koidz.	young leaves, stalks	eaten raw, cooked in soups, picked, blanched	^[17]^[19]^[20]	Stem lettuce	Lactuca sativa var. augustana/var. asparagina	leaves, stems	blanched, stir-fried	^[21]
Pumpkin	Cucurbita moschata	young leaves, stalks	steamed	^[17]	Manchurian wild rice/Water bamboo/Wild rice	Zizania latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf	swollen stem bases	eaten raw, stir-fried	^[21]^[20]
Rape	Brassica napus L.	young leaves, stalks	blanched, cooked in soups	^[17]^[19]	Green onion/Japanese bunching onions/Oriental bunching onion/Scallions/Shallots/Spring onion/Welsh onions	Allium fistulosum	leaves, bulbs	eaten raw, stir-fried, salted, cooked in soups, pancakes	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]
Salt sandspurry	Spergularia marina (L.)	young leaves, stalks	eaten raw, blanched, cooked in pancakes	^[17]	Korean wild chive Wild garlic	Allium monanthum Maxim.	leaves, bulbs	eaten raw cooked in soups, pickled	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Bok choy/Chinese cabbage/Pak choi/White cabbage/White-mustard cabbage	Brassica campestris var. chinensis/B. rapa var. chinensis	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[21]^[18]	Korean youngia	Youngia sonchifolia	young leaves, roots	salted	^[17]^[19]
Chinese cabbage	Brassica pekinensis/B. pe-tsai	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, salted, cooked in soups, as pancakes, pickled, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]	Shepherd’s purse	Capsella bursa-pastoris	young leaves, roots	blanched, cooked in soups	^[17]^[19]^[21]
Chinese celery	Apium graveolens	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, stir-fired, cooked in soups, steamed, pickled	^[21]^[18]	Toothed ixeridium/Toothed ixeris	Ixeridium dentatum (Thunb.) Tzvelev	young leaves, roots	blanched, cooked as pancakes, salted	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Chinese clover	Medicago denticulate/M. hispida	leaves, stalks	stir-fried	^[21]	Young radish	Raphanus sativus L.	young leaves, roots	salted	^[17]^[19]
Chinese mustard/Green mustard/Leaf-mustard cabbage/Mustard cabbage/Mustard greens	Brassica juncea/B. juncea var. rugosa	leaves, stalks	salted, pickled, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Korean ginseng sprout	Panax ginseng Meyer	young leaves, stems, roots	eaten raw	^[22]
East Asian wildparsley/Mitsuba/Honewort	Cryptotaenia canadensis/C. japonica Hassk.	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried, deep fired, cooked in soups	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[20]	Mioga ginger	Zingiber mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe	flower buds	blanched, cooked in soups, pickled	^[17]
Horseradish/Japanese horseradish/Wasabi	Eutrema japonica/Wasabia japonica	leaves, stalks	eaten raw, cooked in soups, picked, blanched	^[17]	Banana bud	Musa spp.	flowers	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried, steamed, cooked in soups, curries	^[18]
Japanese radish greens/Korean radish greens	Raphanus sativus	leaves, stalks	dried leaves are cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[17]

Table 4. Fruit, pod and seed vegetables.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	References
Angled gourd/Dishcloth gourd/Vegetable gourd/Luffa/Sponge gourd	Luffa acutangula	fruits	cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[16]^[21]^[18]	Spaghetti marrow	Cucurbita pepo var. fastigata	fruits	steamed, baked, stir-fried	^[21]
Balsam-pear/Bitter gourd/Bitter melon	Momordica charantia	fruits	steamed, stir-fried, cooked in soups, in stews	^[16]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Baby corn/Miniature corn	Zea mays var. rugosa	corns with cobs	eaten raw, stir-fried	^[18]
Bottle gourd/Edible bottle gourd/White-flowered gourd	Lagenaria leucantha/L. siceraria/L. vulgaris/	fruits	eaten raw, dried, stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Asparagus bean/Cow pea/Long bean/Yard long bean/Yard-Long beans	Dolichos sesquipedalis/Vigna sesquipedalis/Vigna sinensis var. sesquipedalis	pods	eaten raw, stir-fried, cooked in stews	^[16]^[21]^[18]
Chinese preserving melon/Wax gourd/Winter gourd	Benincasa cerifera/B. hispida	fruits	eaten raw, cooked in soups, in stews, pickled, steamed, stir-fried	^[16]^[17]^[21]^[18]	Asparagus pea/Goa beans Winged bean	Psophocarpus tetragonolobus	pods	blanched, stir-fried	^[16]^[18]
Eggplant	Solanum melongena	fruits	steamed, stir-fried, deep fried, pan fried, grilled, cooked in soups, in stews	^[17]^[18]	Edible-podded peas	Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon	pods	stir-fried	^[16]
Fiery little bird’s-eye chili	Capsicum frutescens	fruits	eaten raw, cooked	^[18]	Snow pea/Sugar pea	Pisum sativum var. saccaratum	pods	blanched, stir-fried	^[18]
Finger-length chili	Capsicum annuum cv. group longum	fruits	eaten raw, cooked	^[18]	Adzuki bean	Phaseolus angularis/Vigna angularis	beans	cooked gruel, sweet paste	^[17]^[21]
Hairy melon/Jointed gourd	Benincasa hispida var. chieh-gua	fruits	eaten raw, steamed, cooked in soups, stir-fried	^[21]	Borlotti bean/Red-streaked bean	Phaseolus vulgaris cv.	beans	simmered, cooked in soups, stews	^[18]
Japanese pumpkin/Kabocha squash	Cucurbita maxima/C. moschata/ some hybrids between the two	fruits	Steamed, deep fried, cooked pancakes, porridge	^[17]^[21]	Cowpeas	Vigna sinensis/V. unguiculate L. Walp.	beans	grounded, cooked gruel, pancakes, jelly	^[16]^[17]^[19]
Korean zucchini/Young pumpkin	Cucurbita moschata	fruits	stir-fried, cooked in soups, pancakes	^[17]^[19]	Jwinunikong	Rhynchosia nulubilis	beans	cooked, roasted, boiled tea	^[17]
Long eggplant	Solanum melongena var. serpentinum	fruits	steamed, stir-fried	^[16]^[19]	Mungbean	Vigna radiata	beans	grounded, cooked gruel and pancakes, jelly	^[17]^[19]
Oriental cucumber	Cucumis sativus	fruits	eaten raw, salted, pickled	^[21]	Soya bean/Soybeans	Glycine hispida/G. max	beans	grounded, cooked and made tofu, pastes, sauces, sweets, side dishes	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]
Oriental pickling melon	Cucumis melo var. conomon	fruits	pickled	^[17]	Sword bean	Canavalia ensiformis	beans	cooked, boiled, steamed, roasted and boiled tea	^[17]^[19]
Oriental pickling melon/Pickling melon	Cucumis melo var. conomon	fruits	Eaten raw, pickled, baked, stir-fried, boiled, cooked in soups	^[16]^[21]	Twisted cluster bean	Parkia speciosa	beans	stir-fried	^[18]
Papaya	Carica papaya	fruits	eaten raw, simmered, cooked in soups	^[18]	Perilla seed	Perilla frutescens	seeds	roasted and made oil, roasted or grounded and used as seasonings	^[17]
Pea eggplant	Solanum torvum	fruits	eaten raw, cooked in curries	^[18]	Sesame seeds	Sesame indicum	seeds	roasted and made oil, roasted or grounded and used as seasonings	^[17]^[21]
Snake gourd	Trichosanthes cucumerina var. anguina	fruits	stir-fried, cooked in curries	^[18]	Water caltrop/Water chestnut	Trapa bicornis /T. bispinosa /T. natans	seeds	boiled	^[16]^[21]^[20]

Table 5. Root vegetables.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Used Parts	Culinary Uses	Reference
Arrowhead/Chinese potato/Swamp potato	Sagittaria sagittifolia/S. sinensis	tubers	boiled, fried, stir-fried, grilled	^[16]^[21]	Gegeol radish	Raphanus sativus	roots, leaves	salted, pickled	^[17]
Chinese artichoke	Stachys affinis/S. Sieboldii/S. tubifera	tubers	eaten raw, blanched, stir-fried, steamed, pickled	^[21]	Japanese turnips	Brassica rapa var. rapifera	roots, leaves	eaten raw, boiled, stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[21]
Chinese potato/Chinese yam/Cinnamon-vine/East Asian mountain yam/Yam	Dioscorea batatas/D. japonica Thunb./D. opposite	tubers	eaten raw, steamed, cooked gruel and pancakes	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[20]	Korean radish	Raphanus sativus	roots, leaves	eaten raw, salted, cooked in soups, dried	^[17]^[19]
Baker’s garlic/Rakkyo	Allium chinense	bulbs	pickled	^[21]	Small radish	Raphanus sativus L.	roots, leaves	salted	^[17]^[19]
Chinese taro/Japanese taro/Taro/	Colocasia esculenta	corms	cooked in soups, stews, grilled, steamed, simmered	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Balloon-flower	Platycodon grandifloras (Jacq.) A.DC.	roots	eaten raw, boiled as tea	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Gonyak	Amorphophallus konjac	corms	Its starch is cooked and made jelly	^[17]	Bonnet bellflower/Deodeok/Lance Asiabell	Codonopsis lanceolate (Siebold & Zucc.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Trautv.	roots	eaten raw, grilled, salted	^[17]^[19]^[20]
Water chestnut	Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Trin. ex Hensch./E. tuberosa	corms	eaten raw, boiled, pickled, grilled	^[21]^[18]^[20]	Burdock/Great burdock	Arctium lappa/A. majus/Lappa major, L. edulis	roots	blanched, pickled, stir-fried, deep fried, cooked in soups	^[16]^[19]^[21]
Lotus roots	Nelumbo nucifera	rhizomes	eaten raw, steamed, stir-fried, pickled	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[21]^[18]	Horseradish/Japanese horseradish/Wasabi/Wild wasabi	Eutrema japonica (Miq.) Koidz./Wasabia japonica	roots	grated roots are used as seasoning ‘Wasabi’ for Sushi	^[17]^[19]^[21]^[20]
Daikon	Raphanus sativus longipinnatus	roots, leaves	pickled, simmered, cooked in soups, dried	^[16]^[17]^[19]^[18]

Table 6. Mushrooms.

Vegetable	Scientific Names	Culinary Uses	Reference	Vegetable	Scientific Names	Culinary Uses	References
Juda’s ear	Auricularia auricula-judae	stir-fried	^[17]	Pine mushroom	Tricholoma matsutake Sing.	eaten raw, grilled	^[17]
Lesser rock tripe/Plated rock tripe/Smooth rock tripe	Manna lichen	blanched, stir-fried	^[17]	Straw Mushroom	Volvariella volvacea	stir-fried, cooked in soups	^[18]
Oak Mushroom/Shiitake Mushroom	Lentinus edodes	stir-fried, cooked in stews, soups, pancakes	^[17]^[18]	Winter mushroom	Flammulina velutipes Sing.	stir-fried, cooked in stews, soups	^[17]

Due to the limited number of publications and information in Europe, we added some commonly consumed or unique Asian vegetables to the list. Interestingly, some vegetables that had been traditionally gathered in the wild have recently been cultivated to provide more choice for consumers looking for diversity and health benefits. These vegetables are becoming more available in both online and offline markets.

Since vegetables have various common English names in the literature, we use their scientific names to avoid confusion and for better accuracy. The Asian vegetables are categorized under six groups: (i) sprout vegetables (Table 1), (ii) tree vegetables (Table 2), (iii) leaf and stem vegetables (Table 3), (iv) fruit, pod and seed vegetables (Table 4), (v) root vegetables (Table 5), and (vi) mushrooms (Table 6).

For the list of Asian vegetables in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6, we gathered information from three published sources in English which introduce Asian vegetables, mainly from China, Japan and Southeast Asia. We also referred to information from published literature in Korean from various South Korean government ministries for more specific data. Additionally, we searched for the popularity of each species on the Internet. If the vegetable name did not appear in offline or online markets or in recipes and comments of internet users, we did not include the vegetable name in the list. Furthermore, we discuss four Asian vegetables and their future potential in the European market.

4. Four Recommended Asian Vegetables

Several Asian vegetables that were traditionally gathered wild, harvested from fields or forests, are now sold in online and offline markets in South Korea as ‘Ssam’ or ‘Namul’ vegetables. Vegetable-consuming cultures can also be found in other Asian countries. Pickled vegetables are consumed in China as ‘Pao Cai’ and in Japan as ‘Tsukemono’ and ‘Asazuke’. Additionally, most Southeast Asian countries and China typically consume vegetables by using the stir-fried cooking method. The vegetables are consumed mostly in the forms of ‘Kimchi’, ‘Ssam’ and ‘Namul’ as we explain further below.

‘Kimchi’ consists of salted and fermented vegetables. It is served as a side dish in almost every meal and can be made with various kinds of vegetables such as Chinese cabbage, radish (Raphanus sativus), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), and spring onion (Allium fistulosum). Approximately 300 varieties of ‘Kimchi’ are estimated to exist in Korea ^[23]. ‘Ssam’ consists of wrapping fillings such as cooked meat, rice (Oryza sativa) with fresh leafy vegetables such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and perilla leaves (Perilla frutescens). Recently, various new leafy vegetables have been introduced for ‘Ssam’ and landed successfully in the vegetable market. ‘Namul’ are seasoned fresh vegetables prepared either blanched or raw as side dishes. Various vegetables, not only cultivated but also gathered wild, are used for ‘Namul’.

4.1. Korean Ginseng Sprouts (Panax Ginseng Meyer)

Korean ginseng is a perennial plant in the Araliaceae family. Korean ginseng has been used as a medicinal plant in East Asia ^[24] for more than 2,000 years ^[25]. Ginsenoside (triterpene glycoside saponin) is the main bioactive ingredient in Korean ginseng and is known to have various pharmacological and physiological benefits ^[24] such as anti-cancer ^[26], anti-diabetic ^[27]^[28], immunomodulatory ^[26]^[29], neuroprotective ^[26], radioprotective ^[30], anti-amnestic ^[26], and anti-stress properties ^[31]^[32].

Korean ginseng sprout ^[22] is a new medicinal vegetable recently introduced in the South Korean vegetable market with demand increasing ^[22]. Korean ginseng is customarily used only for its roots and should be grown for about 5–6 years before harvest ^[33]. Because of this length of time, it is a high-priced product for consumers (Figure 1). In contrast, Korean ginseng sprout uses all parts of the plant, not only roots, but especially the leaves due to their young tender texture. Leaves contain higher levels of certain types of ginsenosides (Rg1, Rg2+Rh1, Rd, and Rg3) than roots ^[34]. It can be grown in a hydroponic cultivation system either without soil ^[35]^[36] or with nursery soil ^[22]^[37] Therefore, ginseng sprouts can be produced all year round without using pesticides in appropriate conditions. It only needs to be grown for 2–8 weeks after transplanting of one-year-old-ginseng-seedlings ^[22]^[35].

Figure 1. Mountain-cultivated Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer).

These plants are found in mountainous regions (Gangwon-do, South Korea). Compared to intensive field-cultivated plants, mountain-cultivated ginseng is more expensive. Since wild mountain ginseng is rare and Eastern Asians strongly believe in its health benefits, its value is highly appreciated. Intensively cultivated ginseng needs 5–6 years until harvest, while wild mountain ginseng has a slow growth rate and requires a longer time. Mountain ginseng has a smaller size than intensively cultivated ginseng. Korean ginseng is not usually sold in supermarkets, but in particular markets only for Korean ginseng products or online markets (Source: Hong, personal communication)

Korean ginseng sprouts are a small sized vegetable with a mild, bitter flavor. Soil-less ginseng sprouts can provide health benefits and a pesticide-free alternative for consumers. It can be consumed in a variety of ways, including in salads, milkshakes, deep-fried, sushi, soups, and tea. Furthermore, Korean ginseng sprout can be used in health food supplements and cosmetics.

4.2. Ssamchoo (Brassica lee ssp. Namai cv. Ssamchoo) and Red Ssamchoo (Brassica koreana Lee var. Redleaf)

Ssamchoo ^[17] is a hybrid plant species. This handle-fan-shaped leafy vegetable was developed by aneuploidy crossing Chinese cabbage with regular cabbage as ‘Ssam’ leafy vegetables ^[38]^[39]. Therefore, Ssamchoo combines the advantages of Chinese cabbage and cabbage ^[39]. Red Ssamchoo (Brassica koreana Lee var. redleaf) is a variety of Green Ssamchoo ^[39].

According to a leafy vegetables-agricultural technology guide from the Rural Development Association (RDA) South Korea ^[39], Ssamchoo has all the benefits of Chinese cabbage and cabbage, and a very high fiber content making it easier to digest. Overall contents of calcium, iron, vitamin A and ascorbic acid in Ssamchoo are higher than Chinese cabbage, cabbage and lettuce ^[39].

Producers can grow Ssamchoo either in soil or hydroponic systems. The method of cultivation is similar to that of lettuce. Ssamchoo can be harvested one month after sowing ^[39]. However, this vegetable is intolerant to hot and humid weather ^[39].

Ssamchoo has a smaller leaf size (Figure 2) than those of Chinese cabbage and regular cabbage ^[39]. Red Ssamchoo draws attention due to its red leaf and stem color ^[39]. Ssamchoo brings together the slight bitterness from Chinese cabbage and nutty sweetness from regular cabbage ^[39]. This leafy vegetable is lightly aromatic, sweet, juicy, mini-sized, and can be used in salads and soups and may be deep-fried ^[39].

Figure 2. Ssamchoo (Brassica lee ssp. namai cv. Ssamchoo).

Leaves of Ssamchoo can be easily found in open showcases fitted with a cool-mist humidifier in supermarkets. This vegetable is displayed with other various types of fresh leafy vegetables in a ‘Ssam-leafy-vegetables-section’ of supermarkets. Ssamchoo can be purchased in offline or online stores. Some online stores deliver fresh Ssamchoo leaves within 24 h after placing an order, even in the early morning of the next day of purchase (Source: Hong, personal collection).

4.3. Peucedanum Japonicum

Peucedanum japonicum ^[17]^[19]^[20] is a perennial herb ^[40] that belongs to the Umbelliferae family and is used as a medicinal plant ^[41]. This herb is found in China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines ^[42]. Its leaves are consumed traditionally to treat coughs in the Okinawa islands in Japan ^[41]. Peucedanum japonicum is reported to possess pharmacological benefits such as anti-obesity ^[41]^[43]^[44], anti-oxidant ^[45], anti-bacterial ^[46], anti-diabetic ^[44], tyrosinase inhibition ^[47], and anti-platelet aggregation ^[40].

Peucedanum japonicum is traditionally had been foraged from the wild. However, the plant is now cultivated in South Korea for its health benefits (Figure 3). The leaves contain a fragrant aroma, a little bitter and sweet taste. This leafy vegetable can be eaten raw as a salad, blanched, pickled or deep-fried. Peucedanum japonicum can be cultivated in an open field, greenhouse or hydroponic cultivation system ^[48]^[49].

Figure 3. Peucedanum japonicum.

Young leaves with stems, packed in a plastic bag are sold in ‘Namul-leafy vegetable section’ of supermarkets. Peucedanum japonicum can be purchased in offline or online stores. Some online stores deliver this fresh leafy vegetable within 24 h after placing an order, even in the early morning of the day after purchase (Source: Hong, personal collection).

4.4. Aralia Elata (Miq.) Seem.

Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem. ^[17]^[19]^[22] is a shrub that is found across Northeastern China, Korea, Japan ^[50]^[51] and eastern Russia ^[52]. In Chinese traditional medicine, its root cortex has been used as a tonic, anti-arthritic and anti-diabetic agent ^[53]. In the leaves and root cortex, many saponins are isolated and reported to possess an anti-diabetic ^[53] and a cytoprotective effect ^[54]. Additionally, a study found specific anti-tumor activity in the extract of the shoots ^[55].

The young shoots of Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem. have been generally foraged from the wild, but it is cultivated in Japan and South Korea for its expected health benefits (Figure 4). This young shoot has a mildly bitter and sweet taste, fragrant aroma, and a crunchy texture. This shoot vegetable is enough to be an ornament itself in dishes, and thus this young shoot is used as a garnish in Japanese cuisine ^[56]. In South Korea, the shoots are simply blanched and consumed with a spicy-sour sauce. This aromatic vegetable can also be pickled and deep-fried.

Figure 4. Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem.

Young shoots of Aralia, packed in clear transparent disposable plastic containers can be found in the leafy vegetable section of supermarkets. The shoots are still attached to a small part of woody stems to keep the shoots fresh. Consumers should carefully remove woody stems covered with sharp thorns. Young shoots can be purchased in offline or online stores. Some online stores deliver this fresh young shoots within 24 h after placing an order, even in the early morning of the day after purchase (Source: Hong, personal collection).

Young shoots of Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem. can be harvested (April–May) in open field cultivation from a whole tree ^[57]^[58]. If the shoots are harvested in the greenhouse (February–April), stem cuttings must be prepared ^[58]. Shoots will develop naturally from the stem cuttings given appropriate humidity ^[58]. Producers following forcing culture practices need a simple cultivation system such as a double-layer plastic greenhouse, heater, and white greenhouse felt for insulation ^[58]. Stem cuttings can sprout in immersion cultivation, in which shoots can be harvested after 15 days (30–35 days long) ^[57]. This method results in harvest at least two weeks earlier than from forcing cultivation ^[57].

References

Suhrcke, M.; McKee, M.; Stuckler, D.; Arce, R.S.; Tsolova, S.; Mortensen, J. The contribution of health to the economy in the European Union. Pub. Health 2006, 120, 994–1001.
Eurostat. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Health_statistics_at_regional_level (accessed on 9 April 2020).
WHO. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2003/pr20/en/ (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Danaei, G.; Ding, E.L.; Mozaffarian, D.; Taylor, B.; Rehm, J.; Murray, C.J.; Ezzati, M. The preventable causes of death in the United States: Comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000058.
Lim, S.S.; Vos, T.; Flaxman, A.D.; Danaei, G.; Shibuya, K.; Adair-Rohani, H.; Al Mazroa, M.A.; Amann, M.; Anderson, H.R.; Andrews, K.G.; et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012, 380, 2224–2260.
Lozano, R.; Naghavi, M.; Foreman, K.; Lim, S.; Shibuya, K.; Aboyans, V.; Abraham, J.; Adair, T.; Aggarwal, R.; Ahn, S.Y.; et al. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012, 380, 2095–2128.
Agudo, A.; Cabrera, L.; Amiano, P.; Ardanaz, E.; Barricarte, A.; Berenguer, T.; Chirlaque, M.D.; Dorronsoro, M.; Jakszyn, P.; Larrañaga, N.; et al. Fruit and vegetable intakes, dietary antioxidant nutrients, and total mortality in Spanish adults: Findings from the Spanish cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Spain). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 1634–1642.
Nicklett, E.J.; Semba, R.D.; Xue, Q.L.; Tian, J.; Sun, K.; Cappola, A.R.; Simonsick, E.M.; Ferrucci, L.; Fried, L.P. Fruit and vegetable intake, physical activity, and mortality in older community-dwelling women. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2012, 60, 862–868.
Trichopoulou, A.; Costacou, T.; Bamia, C.; Trichopoulos, D. Adherence to a Mediterranean diet and survival in a Greek population. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 2599–2608.
Wang, X.; Ouyang, Y.; Liu, J.; Zhu, M.; Zhao, G.; Bao, W.; Hu, F.B. Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: Systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ 2014, 349, g4490.
Shahbaz, M.; Ashraf, M.; Al-Qurainy, F.; Harris, P.J.C. Salt tolerance in selected vegetable crops. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2012, 31, 303–320.
Dias, J.S. World Importance, Marketing and Trading of Vegetables. Acta Hort. 2011, 921, 153–170.
Caton, S.J.; Blundell, P.; Ahern, S.M.; Nekitsing, C.; Olsen, A.; Møller, P.; Hausner, H.; Remy, E.; Nicklaus, S.; Chabanet, C.; et al. Learning to Eat Vegetables in Early Life: The Role of Timing, Age and Individual Eating Traits. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e97609.
Anderson, A.S.; Porteous, L.E.G.; Foster, E.; Higgins, C.; Stead, M.; Hetherington, M.; Ha, M.-A.; Adamson, A.J. The impact of a school-based nutrition education intervention on dietary intake and cognitive and attitudinal variables relating to fruits and vegetables. Pub. Health Nutr. 2005, 8, 650–656.
Ransley, J.K.; Greenwood, D.C.; Cade, J.E.; Blenkinsop, S.; Schagen, I.; Teeman, D.; Scott, E.; White, G.; Schagen, S. Does the school fruit and vegetable scheme improve children’s diet? A nonrandomised controlled trial. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2007, 61, 699–703.
Chung, H.L.; Ripperton, J.C. Utilization and Composition of Oriental Vegetables in Hawaii; Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station: Honolulu, HI, USA, 1929; pp. 1–64. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/10125/14976 (accessed on 9 April 2020).
National Institute of Agricultural Sciences-RDA (Rural Development Administration). 9th Revision Korean Food Composition Table II (제9개정판 국가표준 식품성분표II); Functional Food and Nutrition Division-Department of Agro-food Resources-National Institute of Agricultural Sciences-RDA (Rural Development Administration): Wanju, Korea, 2016; ISBN: 978-89-480-4348-8 94520, 978-89-480-4347-2. Available online: http://www.rda.go.kr/download_file/act/bookcafe078.PDF (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Hutton, W. Handy Pocket Guide to Asian Vegetables; Periplus Editions Ltd.: Hongkong, 2004; ISBN: 0794601944 (ISBN13: 9780794601942).
Dongbuk Regional Statistics Office–Statistics Korea. Illustrated Crop Book at Each Growth Stages (생육단계별 농작물도감); Dongbuk Regional Statistics Office: Daegu, Korea, 2015. Available online: http://kostat.go.kr/e_book/stepcrop/base/EBook/index.html#page=10 (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Korea National Arboretum. English Names for Korean Native Plants (한반도 자생식물 영어이름 목록집); Korea National Arboretum: Pocheon-si, Korea, 2015; ISBN 978-89-97450-98-5-93480. Available online: http://www.forest.go.kr/kna/special/download/English_Names_for_Korean_Native_Plants.pdf (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Larkcom, J. Oriental Vegetables: The Complete Guide for Garden and Kitchen; John Murray Ltd: London, UK, 1991; ISBN 0719547814.
Jang, I.B.; Yu, J.; Suh, S.J.; Jang, I.B.; Kwon, K.B. Growth and Ginsenoside Content in Different Parts of Ginseng Sprouts Depending on Harvest Time. Korean J. Med. Crop Sci. 2018, 26, 205–213.
Kimchimuseum. Available online: https://www.kimchimuseum.com/kimchi-lab/kimchi-kinds/5529 (accessed on 23 April 2020).
Oh, J.Y.; Kim, Y.J.; Jang, M.G.; Joo, S.C.; Kwon, W.S.; Kim, S.Y.; Jung, S.K.; Yang, D.C. Investigation of ginsenosides in different tissues after elicitor treatment in Panax ginseng. J. Ginseng Res. 2014, 38, 270–277.
Jung, M.Y.; Jeon, B.S.; Bock, J.Y. Free, esterified, and insoluble-bound phenolic acids in white and red Korean ginsengs (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer). Food Chem. 2002, 79, 105–111.
Attele, A.S.; Wu, J.A.; Yuan, C.S. Ginseng pharmacology: Multiple constituents and multiple actions. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1999, 58, 1685–1693.
Xie, J.T.; Mehendale, S.R.; Li, X.; Quigg, R.; Wang, X.; Wang, C.Z.; Wu, J.A.; Aung, H.H.; Rue, P.A.; Bell, G.I.; et al. Anti-diabetic effect of ginsenoside Re in ob/ob mice. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 2005, 1740, 319–325.
Shang, W.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, L.; Jiang, B.; Jin, H.; Chen, M. Ginsenoside Rb1 stimulates glucose uptake through insulin-like signaling pathway in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. J. Endocrinol. 2008, 198, 561–569.
Wang, J.; Gao, W.Y.; Zhang, J.; Zuo, B.M.; Zhang, L.M.; Huang, L.Q. Advances in study of ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway in Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2012, 34, 397–403.
Lee, T.K.; Johnke, R.M.; Allison, R.R.; O’Brien, K.F.; Dobbs, L.J., Jr. Radio protective potential of ginseng. Mutagenesis 2005, 20, 237–243.
Saito, H.; Yoshida, Y.; Takagi, K. Effect of Panax ginseng root on exhaustive exercise in mice. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 1974, 24, 119–127.
Gillis, C.N. Panax ginseng pharmacology: A nitric oxide link? Biochem. Pharmacol. 1997, 54, 1–8.
Soldati, F.; Tanaka, O. Panax ginseng: Relation between age of plant and content of ginsenosides. Planta Med. 1984, 50, 351–352.
Choi, S.Y.; Cho, C.W.; Lee, Y.M.; Kim, S.S.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, K.T. Comparison of Ginsenoside and Phenolic Ingredient Contents in Hydroponically-cultivated Ginseng Leaves, Fruits, and Roots. J. Ginseng Res. 2012, 36, 425–429.
Lee, J.Y.; Yang, H.; Lee, T.K.; Lee, C.H.; Seo, J.W.; Kim, J.-E.; Kim, S.Y.; Park, J.H.Y.; Lee, K.W. A short-term, hydroponic-culture of ginseng results in a significant increase in the anti-oxidative activity and bioactive components. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2020, 1–6.
Kim, G.S.; Lee, S.E.; Noh, H.J.; Kwon, H.; Lee, S.W.; Kim, S.Y.; Kim, Y.B. Effects of Natural Bioactive Products on the Growth and Ginsenoside Contents of Panax ginseng Cultured in an Aeroponic System. J. Ginseng Res. 2012, 36, 430–441.
Jeong, D.H.; Lee, D.Y.; Jang, I.B.; Yu, J.; Park, K.C.; Lee, E.H.; Kim, Y.J.; Park, H.W. Growth and Ginsenoside Content of One Year Old Ginseng Seedlings in Hydroponic Culture over a Range of Days after Transplanting. Korean J. Med. Crop Sci. 2018, 26, 464–470.
Lee, K.H. Plant Species Ssamchoo and Breeding Method Thereof. U.S. Patent 6,600,092 B2, 29 July 2003. Available online: https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/83/67/3a/f2fd2bf0c7a207/US6600092.pdf (accessed on 9 April 2020).
RDA (Rural Development Administration). Leafy Vegetables-Agricultural Technology Guide 140 (엽채류–농업기술길잡이 140(개정판), 3rd ed.; RDA: Jeonju-si, South Korea, 2017; pp. 142–148, ISBN: 978-89-480-5001-1 94520, 978-89-480-1772-4(set). Available online: http://lib.rda.go.kr/search/mediaView.do?mets_no=000000299932 (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Chen, I.S.; Chang, C.T.; Sheen, W.S.; Teng, C.M.; Tsai, I.L.; Duh, C.Y.; Ko, F.N. Coumarins and antiplatelet aggregation constituents from Formosan Peucedanum japonicum. Phytochemistry 1996, 41, 525–530.
Okabe, T.; Toda, T.; Nukitrangsan, N.; Inafuku, M.; Iwasaki, H.; Oku, H. Peucedanum japonicum Thunb inhibits high-fat diet induced obesity in mice. Phytother. Res. 2011, 25, 870–877.
Chen, C.C.; Agrawal, D.C.; Lee, M.R.; Lee, R.J.; Kuo, C.L.; Wu, C.R.; Tsay, H.S.; Chang, H.C. Influence of LED light spectra on in vitro somatic embryogenesis and LC-MS analysis of chlorogenic acid and rutin in Peucedanum japonicum Thunb.: A medicinal herb. Bot. Stud. 2016, 57, 9.
Nugara, R.N.; Inafuku, M.; Iwasaki, H.; Oku, H. Partially purified Peucedanum japonicum Thunb extracts exert anti-obesity effects in vitro. Nutrition 2014, 30, 575–583.
Nukitrangsan, N.; Okabe, T.; Toda, T.; Inafuku, M.; Iwasaki, H.; Oku, H. Antiobesity activity of Peucednum japonicum Thunb extract in obese diabetic animal model C57 BL/6 J Ham Slc-ob/ob mice. Intern. J. Life Sci. Med. Res. 2012, 2, 28–34. Available online: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a25c/4ebb567714c0e702eb25b82cafa7c32f7224.pdf (accessed on 9 April 2020).
Hisamoto, M.; Kikuzaki, H.; Ohigashi, H.; Nakatani, N. Antioxidant compounds from the leaves of Peucedanum japonicum Thunb. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 5255–5261.
Yang, E.J.; Kim, S.S.; Oh, T.H.; Song, G.; Kim, K.N.; Kim, J.Y.; Lee, N.H.; Hyun, C.G. Peucedenum japonicum and Citrus unshiu essential oils inhibit the growth of antibiotic-resistant skin pathogens. Ann. Microbiol. 2009, 59, 623–628.
Hisamoto, M.; Kikuzaki, H.; Nakatani, N. Constituents of the leaves of Peucedanum japonicum Thunb. and their biological activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 445–450.
Lee, G.J.; Heo, J.W.; Jung, C.R.; Kim, H.H.; Yoon, J.B.; Kim, D.E.; Nam, S.Y. Effects of Plant Factory Cultural Systems on Growth, Vitamin C and Amino Acid Contents, and Yield in Hydroponically Grown Peucedanum japonicum. Prot. Hortic. Plant Fact. 2015, 24, 281–286.
Lee, G.J.; Heo, J.W.; Jung, C.R.; Kim, H.H.; Kim, D.E.; Nam, S.Y. Effects of Artificial Light Sources on Growth and Yield of Peucedanum japonicum Hydroponically Grown in Plant Factory. Prot. Hortic. Plant Fact. 2016, 25, 16–23.
Zhang, J.; Wang, H.; Zheng, Q. Cardioprotective effect of Aralia elata polysaccharide on myocardial ischemic reperfusion (IR) injury in rats. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2013, 59, 328–332.
Zhang, J.; Wang, H.; Xue, Y.; Zheng, Q. Cardioprotective and antioxidant activities of a polysaccharide from the root bark of Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 93, 442–448.
Luo, Y.; Lu, S.; Ai, Q.; Zhou, P.; Qin, M.; Sun, G.; Sun, X. SIRT1/AMPK and Akt/eNOS signaling pathways are involved in endothelial protection of total aralosides of Aralia elata (Miq) Seem against high-fat diet-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE-/-mice. Phytother. Res. 2019, 33, 768–778.
Yoshikawa, M.; Matsuda, H.; Harada, E.; Murakami, T.; Wariishi, N.; Yamahara, J.; Murakami, N.; Elatoside, E. A new hypoglycemic principle from the root cortex of Aralia elata seem.: Structure-related hypoglycemic activity of oleanolic acid glycosides. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1994, 42, 1354–1356.
Saito, S.; Ebashi, J.; Sumita, S.; Furumoto, T.; Nagamura, Y.; Nishida, K.; Isiguro, I. Comparison of cytoprotective effects of saponins isolated from leaves of Aralia elata Seem. (Araliaceae) with synthesized bisdesmosides of oleanoic acid and hederagenin on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1993, 41, 1395–1401.
Tomatsu, M.; Ohnishi-Kameyama, M.; Shibamoto, N. Aralin, a new cytotoxic protein from Aralia elata, inducing apoptosis in human cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 2003, 199, 19–25.
Yoshikawa, M.; Yoshizumi, S.; Ueno, T.; Matsuda, H.; Murakami, T.; Yamahara, J.; Murakami, N. Medicinal foodstuffs. I. Hypoglycemic constituents from a garnish foodstuff "taranome," the young shoot of Aralia elata SEEM.: Elatosides G, H, I, J, and K. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1995, 43, 1878–1882.
Kim, S.H.; Moon, H.K.; Song, J.H.; Son, S.K.; Lee, J.H. Cultivation Technology for Special Purpose Trees Kalopanax Septemlobu and Aralia Elata (특수수종 음나무 및 두릅나무 재배기술); National Institute of Forest Science: Seoul, South Korea, 2013; pp. 103–169. ISBN 978-89-8176-493-7 93520. Available online: http://know.nifos.go.kr/book/search/DetailView.ax?&;cid=160540 (accessed on 9 April 2020).
RDA. Available online: https://www.nongsaro.go.kr/portal/ps/psb/psbk/kidofcomdtyDtl.ps;jsessionid=MFA4MfU8hjAXuTSstduwOhS6BRJbNz6nixtyVGQD21unGS9Y05622tRgnQJCXu5D.nongsaro-web_servlet_engine1?menuId=PS00067&kidofcomdtyNo=22534 (accessed on 9 April 2020).

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Horticulture

Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Nazim Gruda

View Times: 1.4K

Update Date: 23 Dec 2021