Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Mesbahuddin Chowdhury
 + 1721 word(s) 1721 2021-12-14 10:28:50 |
2 format correct
Conner Chen
 Meta information modification 1721 2021-12-21 08:44:12 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Chowdhury, M. Organic Food. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17356 (accessed on 06 July 2024).
Chowdhury M. Organic Food. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17356. Accessed July 06, 2024.
Chowdhury, Mesbahuddin. "Organic Food" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17356 (accessed July 06, 2024).
Chowdhury, M. (2021, December 20). Organic Food. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17356
Chowdhury, Mesbahuddin. "Organic Food." Encyclopedia. Web. 20 December, 2021.
Organic Food
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su132413540

The International Federation of Organic Movements (2018) defines organic agriculture as “a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people; relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects; and combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.” The requirements for organic produce differ globally. Though the schemes have some differences, the requirements generally forbid “synthetic pesticides or fertilizers or routine use of antibiotics or growth hormones”.

organic food

1. Introduction

Organic food has grown in popularity and its market share, as well as consumer acceptance, have rapidly grown across the globe [1]. According to IFOAM [2], by the end of 2017, at a global level, organic agriculture was practiced in 181 countries, over a total of approximately 69.8 million hectares (1.4% of agricultural land), and the size of the organic market reached USD 97 billion. In general, organic production systems adhere to specific requirements [3] such as a reduced use of chemicals (inclusive of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, antibiotics, growth hormones) whilst also adhering to ethical practices (e.g., animal welfare) and social responsibility (e.g., workers’ rights and ethical trade). In comparison to conventionally produced food, organic food is expected to be more nutritional and safer to consume [4].

2. Organic Food—Definition and Background

The International Federation of Organic Movements (2018) defines organic agriculture as “a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people; relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects; and combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.” The requirements for organic produce differ globally. Though the schemes have some differences, the requirements generally forbid “synthetic pesticides or fertilizers or routine use of antibiotics or growth hormones” [5].
The demand for organic food has been steadily growing. By the end of 2017, the organic food market was valued at EUR 40 billion in the US [2] and EUR 37.3 billion in Europe [6]. The rise in demand for organic produce is linked to an increased preference for organic food from consumers. On the one hand, the demand is driven by increased awareness about the environmental and social responsibility of organizations. Consumers also have inflated beliefs in food and often perceive organic products to be more nutritional and less contaminated—despite less convincing scientific evidence [7][8]. On the other hand, this rise in demand is also driven by retailers, who turn to suppliers of organic and socially responsible produce. This trend is not only driven by consumers but also by investors and retailers [9].

3. Food Production Systems

A food production system is generally described as a farm-to-fork value chain. The main stages in the food production system include farm management, food processing, distribution and retail [10]. In farm management, the key elements are farming inputs—e.g., seeds, feed, fertilizers or pesticides; firm resources—e.g., farmland parcels, stables and machinery; and agricultural products—e.g., cattle and produce. These various elements contribute to the production of agri-products that are either further processed into final food products (i.e., a can of fish) or packaged, such as fresh products that are directly packed without processing. In the last stage of the food production system, products are shipped in different containers, distributed to retailers and sold to consumers [10][11].
The food production system is relatively complex in nature. It significantly differs between the types of production: e.g., livestock farming, arable farming and greenhouse cultivation. A common feature of agricultural production is that it depends on natural conditions such as climate (day length and temperature), soil, pests, diseases and weather. Food processing widely varies as different food products can be produced by adopting different processing techniques [12]. It was also characterized by a combination of continuous or batch processing and discrete processes after packaging. In addition to that, there are many diverging and converging processes and by-products available which combine different objects into a single object (e.g., blending) or split into multiple objects (e.g., slaughtering). The distribution of food products combines high volume with frequent delivery and increasingly intricate distribution [13]. Processes can also vary depending on the distribution network layout, including different consolidation strategies and different modes of transportation. Food retailing processes are diverse due to different outlet channels, for example supermarkets, specialized food shops, food service provider including restaurants and caterers as well as increasingly popular webshops [10].
Food production systems are subject to high levels of scrutiny due to the level of risk to consumers. Regulations, policies and standards for food safety have been developed for the food industry over time [14]. A range of inspection, testing and conformity assessments exist across the food system [15] and firms hire a certifier/auditor (or are subject to governmental inspections) to ensure/validate that they have met the certification standards [16]. For instance, food firms around the world are increasingly using standardized quality assurance systems to improve the quality and safety of food products, production and supply chain processes and seek external audit and certification [17][18][19]. The three most important generic quality assurance systems in the food sector are Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCPs) and international standards by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) such as ISO 22000 [20][21]. Governments also play an essential role in providing policy guidance on the most appropriate quality assurance systems and verifying/auditing their implementation as a means of regulatory compliance [20].
Organic production systems differ from conventional food systems in several ways. First, organic production systems have to adhere to the very specific requirements of organic production. In farm management [22], it means, for instance, that the farmers cannot use pesticides (plant farms) or antibiotics (animal farms). Organic farms also have to adhere to other specific practices, such as crop rotation and cover cropping [23]. Such requirements mean that organic producers need to modify their operations, and apart from increased cost, the producers face several challenges [24]. For instance, the reduced (or forbidden) use of pesticides affects the effectiveness of weed management; the produce may be more susceptible to pest insects and plant pathogens [23] and the labour cost is higher [25]. At the food processing stage, the manufacturers might have to use dedicated equipment for organic produce and have to source from specialized suppliers. Organic food processing is also governed by a set of principles, such as naturalness and focus on minimal, sustainable and careful processing [26].

4. Safety Risks in Food Systems

Food safety can be jeopardized at any stage of food systems or product life cycle. A simple categorization of stages where food safety can be affected includes the design phase and the process phase. During the design of a product, errors and mistakes can be made through the inclusion of unapproved food ingredients, the inadequate design of food processing and packaging or poor (or misleading) instructions for use. Product developers can also fail to disclose allergens or the risk of cross-contamination due to the use of the same equipment across multiple product lines [27]. These issues can be managed through effective product quality design processes [28]. On the other hand, process errors can occur at any stage of a product’s life cycle—in farming, processing, or handling (which is often the case in a co-operative processing facility or the use of contaminated water from a local supply) in the manufacturing processes or in transport. Third-party logistics providers often provide several movements of the items and temperature fluctuations can affect the safety of the processed food products. Food products can suffer from microbiological contamination, the contamination of raw materials, poor sanitation, or from the presence of foreign objects. [29]. The consequences of safety problems with food include costs to individuals (e.g., pain, suffering, and medical costs); industries or companies (e.g., recall costs and plant clean-ups), and the public health costs such as clean-up costs and administrative costs related to investigations [30].
Despite the plethora of preventative measures in food systems (monitoring of hazard points, inspections, product testing, and the certification of food management systems), sometimes errors can be prevented and food that poses a health risk (i.e., contaminated food) is distributed in supply chains. In such cases, the affected food is recalled.
Food recalls represent an important mechanism in food systems management. Recalls can be voluntary (based on a firms’ discretion) or involuntary (required by a government agency, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US). Increasingly, firms often take a more voluntary and proactive stance, but there is mixed evidence on the corporate benefits of this proactivity (Zhao et al., 2013). Not all risks and the associated recalls are treated equally; most jurisdictions impose a gradated scale. For example, the FDA [31] uses the following classification:
  • Class I recall: severe, suggesting reasonable probability of lasting adverse health consequences or death. Examples include alfalfa sprouts contaminated with Salmonella spp; under-processed chilli containing Clostridium botulinum toxin; and products containing undeclared allergens [32];
  • Class II recall: may cause temporary/reversible harm but a remote probability of the adverse health consequences;
  • Class III recall: least severe, not likely to cause adverse health consequences
The recall system under FDA governance provides a useful example of food recall management that is similar across the world. The FDA is able to mandate a recall when a firm elects to not conduct a voluntary recall, and the FDA determines that there is a reasonable probability of the adulteration of the food product or it has been misbranded and when there is reasonable probability that exposure may cause serious adverse health consequences or death to humans or animals (SAHCODHA) [32]. The FDA will notify the firms and provide the opportunity to voluntarily initiate recalls. If this does not occur in a timely manner or is refused, the FDA may commence a mandatory recall. Risks that the FDA would consider to represent serious adverse health consequences include “Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) or Salmonella spp. in Ready-to-eat foods, certain undeclared allergens in food products, E. coli O157:H7 in leafy greens, and botulinum toxin found in food products” [32]. At the firm level, a firm or a manager should notify their board and legal department, employees, appropriate government agencies (e.g., the FDA in the US), distributors or retailers downstream, announce to shareholders, and seek to notify consumers of the product [29].

References

  1. Gomiero, T. Food quality assessment in organic vs. conventional agricultural produce: Findings and issues. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2018, 123, 714–728.
  2. IFOAM. The World of Organic Agriculture 2019; IFOAM Organics International: Bonn, Germany, 2019.
  3. Seufert, V.; Ramankutty, N.; Mayerhofer, T. What is this thing called organic?—How organic farming is codified in regulations. Food Policy 2017, 68, 10–20.
  4. Sazvar, Z.; Rahmani, M.; Govindan, K. A sustainable supply chain for organic, conventional agro-food products: The role of demand substitution, climate change and public health. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 194, 564–583.
  5. Smith-Spangler, C.; Brandeau, M.L.; Hunter, G.E.; Bavinger, J.C.; Pearson, M.; Eschbach, P.J.; Sundaram, V.; Liu, H.; Schirmer, P.; Stave, C.; et al. Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives? A systematic review. Ann. Intern. Med. 2012, 157, 348–366.
  6. FiBL. European Organic Market Grew to More Than 37 Billion Euros in 2017. 13 February 2019. Available online: https://www.fibl.org/en/info-centre/news/european-organic-market-grew-to-more-than-37-billion-euros-in-2017 (accessed on 15 July 2020).
  7. Hoefkens, C.; Verbeke, W.; Aertsens, J.; Mondelaers, K.; Van Camp, J. The nutritional and toxicological value of organic vegetables: Consumer perception versus scientific evidence. Br. Food J. 2009, 111, 1062–1077.
  8. Hill, H.; Lynchehaun, F. Organic milk: Attitudes and consumption patterns. Br. Food J. 2002, 104, 526–542.
  9. Castka, P.; Corbett, C. Adoption and diffusion of environmental and social standards. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 2016, 36, 1504–1529.
  10. Verdouw, C.N.; Wolfert, J.; Beulens, A.J.M.; Rialland, A. Virtualization of food supply chains with the internet of things. J. Food Eng. 2016, 176, 128–136.
  11. Thomé, K.M.; Cappellesso, G.; Ramos, E.L.A.; de Lima Duarte, S.C. Food Supply Chains and Short Food Supply Chains: Coexistence conceptual framework. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 278, 123207.
  12. Chemat, F.; Rombaut, N.; Meullemiestre, A.; Turk, M.; Perino, S.; Fabiano-Tixier, A.-S.; Abert-Vian, M. Review of green food processing techniques. Preservation, transformation, and extraction. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2017, 41, 357–377.
  13. Van Der Vorst, J.G.; Tromp, S.-O.; Zee, D.-J.v.d. Simulation modelling for food supply chain redesign; integrated decision making on product quality, sustainability and logistics. Int. J. Prod. Res. 2009, 47, 6611–6631.
  14. Aung, M.M.; Chang, Y.S. Traceability in a food supply chain: Safety and quality perspectives. Food Control 2014, 39, 172–184.
  15. UNIDO. Advancing Conformity Assessment for the New Digital Age; UNIDO, Department of DIgitalization, Technology and Innovation (DTI): Vienna, Austria, 2020.
  16. Mohammed, R.; Zheng, Y. International diffusion of food safety standards: The role of domestic certifiers and international trade. J. Agric. Appl. Econ. 2017, 49, 296–322.
  17. Castka, P.; Corbett, C.J. Management Systems Standards. Diffusion, Impact and Governance of ISO 9000, ISO 14000, and Other Management Systems Standards. Found. Trends Technol. Oper. Manag. 2015, 7, 223.
  18. Castka, P. Modelling firms’ interventions in ISO 9001 certification: A configurational approach. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2018, 201, 163–172.
  19. Castka, P.; Zhao, X.; Bremer, P.; Wood, L.C.; Mirosa, M. Supplier audits during COVID-19: A process perspective on their transformation and implications for the future. Int. J. Logist. Manag. 2021. ahead of print.
  20. Trienekens, J.; Zuurbier, P. Quality and safety standards in the food industry, developments and challenges. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2008, 113, 107–122.
  21. ISO. ISO and Food; International Organization for Standardization: Geneve, Switzerland, 2017.
  22. Ponder, A.; Hallmann, E. The effects of organic and conventional farm management and harvest time on the polyphenol content in different raspberry cultivars. Food Chem. 2019, 301, 125295.
  23. Pimentel, D.; Hepperly, P.; Hanson, J.; Douds, D.; Seidel, R. Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems. BioScience 2005, 55, 573–582.
  24. Gade, P.B. Welfare of animal production in intensive and organic systems with special reference to Danish organic pig production. Meat Sci. 2002, 62, 353–358.
  25. Woese, K.; Lange, D.; Boess, C.; Bögl, K.W. A Comparison of Organically and Conventionally Grown Foods—Results of a Review of the Relevant Literature. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1997, 74, 281–293.
  26. Kahl, J.; Alborzi, F.; Beck, A.; Bügel, S.; Busscher, N.; Geier, U.; Matt, D.; Meischner, T.; Paoletti, F.; Pehme, S. Organic food processing: A framework for concept, starting definitions and evaluation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94, 2582–2594.
  27. Sheth, S.S.; Waserman, S.; Kagan, R.; Alizadehfar, R.; Primeau, M.-N.; Elliot, S.; Pierre, Y.S.; Wickett, R.; Joseph, L.; Harada, L. Role of food labels in accidental exposures in food-allergic individuals in Canada. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2010, 104, 60–65.
  28. Roth, A.V.; Tsay, A.A.; Pullman, M.E.; Gray, J.V. Unraveling the food supply chain: Strategic insights from China and the 2007 recalls. J. Supply Chain Manag. 2008, 44, 22–39.
  29. Kumar, S.; Budin, E.M. Prevention and management of product recalls in the processed food industry: A case study based on an exporter’s perspective. Technovation 2006, 26, 739–750.
  30. Salin, V.; Hooker, N.H. Stock market reaction to food recalls. Rev. Agric. Econ. 2001, 23, 33–46.
  31. FDA. Recalls Background and Definitions. Available online: https://www.fda.gov/safety/industry-guidance-recalls/recalls-background-and-definitions (accessed on 20 September 2020).
  32. FDA. Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff (2020). Questions and Answers Regarding Mandatory Food Recalls: Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff. Available online: https://www.fda.gov/media/117429/download (accessed on 20 September 2021).
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Business
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Mesbahuddin Chowdhury
View Times: 478
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 21 Dec 2021
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback