Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 + 2132 word(s) 2132 2021-10-08 10:58:10 |
2 update layout and reference Meta information modification 2132 2021-10-19 03:28:49 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Kalaipandian, S. Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15114 (accessed on 29 March 2024).
Kalaipandian S. Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15114. Accessed March 29, 2024.
Kalaipandian, Sundaravelpandian. "Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15114 (accessed March 29, 2024).
Kalaipandian, S. (2021, October 19). Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/15114
Kalaipandian, Sundaravelpandian. "Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis." Encyclopedia. Web. 19 October, 2021.
Cloning Coconut via Somatic Embryogenesis
Edit

Coconut [Cocos nucifera L.] is often called “the tree of life” because of its many uses in the food, beverage, medicinal, and cosmetic industries. Currently, more than 50% of the palms grown throughout the world are senile and need to be replanted immediately to ensure production levels meet the present and increasing demand for coconut products.

coconut somatic embryogenesis cloning explants plant growth regulators medium acclimatization genetics

1. Introduction

Coconut [Cocos nucifera L.] is grown in most tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It offers food, shelter, and income to people via the hundreds of products it provides [1][2]. Demand for coconut products has increased up to five-fold in the last 10 years; however, production has not kept up with this growing demand [3]. Very little or no replanting of coconut palms has been undertaken in most production countries and there are now reports of regions carrying more than 70% senile palms [4]. Apart from senility, coconut production currently faces other constraints, including biotic and abiotic stresses, and a lack of quality planting materials from seednuts. Coconut is susceptible to pest and diseases such as the coconut rhinocerous beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros L.), the red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier), lethal yellowing diseases including Bogia coconut syndrome, and viroid diseases such as cadang-cadang, and climatic conditions such as drought intensified by recent climate change events [5]. Replanting efforts have been limited due to the lack of good quality and true-to-type planting materials. As Tall coconut types cross-pollinate, the establishment of new palms from seednuts may show a high degree of variation in fruit yield and other traits, which can be observed only at palm maturity [6]. In such Tall types, controlled pollination is required to produce true-to-type palms, and this is difficult to achieve on a large scale due to the height these palms can attain at maturity. In addition, when disease-resistant plants are identified, they are usually few in number and therefore unable to produce sufficient seednuts [7] to meet the high demand for disease-resistant seedlings. Similarly, some elite varieties cannot be grown from seed, such as the makapuno and aromatics [8][9][10]. Due to these constraints, large quantities of high-quality planting materials to meet the growing demand cannot be supplied by traditional means, and no vegetative propagation methods are available for plantlet production [9]. In vitro culture has the potential to rapidly multiply a chosen genotype to produce numerous clonal plantlets. Ideal application could result in the mass production of early-bearing, disease-free, and resistant palms that have high productivity or other valuable characteristics [5][11]. Somatic embryogenesis (SE) has been identified by many as the most feasible technique for large-scale production of high-quality coconut plantlets [12][13][14].
Coconut SE involves, firstly, the induction of embryogenic callus, the formation and development of the somatic embryo, its maturation, then germination, and finally the recovery of the plantlet formed [15]. During the process of SE, the dedifferentiated somatic cells regain their epigenetic and biochemical competence to form somatic embryos that progress through a series of developmental stages such as zygotic embryogenesis [16]. Somatic embryogenesis in the palm family was first described for oil palm (Elaesis guineensis Jacq.) by Rabechault et al. in 1970 [17], and later in coconut by Eeuwens and Blake, in 1977 [18]. To date, these techniques have been considerably improved to be able to produce coconut plantlets in vitro on a large scale [7][19].
At every stage in the SE approach, from somatic cells to whole plantlet formation, numerous factors have been found to play a crucial role in success, including the genotype of the donor plant, the explant type cultured, the media and plant growth regulators (PGR) used, and the acclimatization procedures applied to the germinated plantlets. Several coconut tissues have been used for explants viz., shoot tips, plumules, rachillae sections, young leaves, unfertilized ovaries, and immature embryos, with the response varying depending on the explant type [13]. Plant growth regulators used in the media are known to be another major influencer of the rate of success in the production of plantlets via SE. For example, a low concentration of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is known to induce the best quantity of embryogenic cells in several Sri Lankan Tall varieties [20], whereas a high concentration of 2,4-D was required for Malayan Yellow Dwarf to achieve the similar results [21].

2. Importance of Suitable Explants

Cell totipotency is an important characteristic of plant cells, but not all cells are totipotent. The somatic cells that demonstrate a sensitivity to embryogenesis and are capable of undergoing SE are described as being totipotent. The capability of tissue to produce somatic embryos is mainly dependent on a restricted fraction of their cell population, rather than a distinct area within this cell population [22]. Hence, an explant with a source of totipotent cells is the key prerequisite for SE formation by external inducement. The SE response can also be influenced by the age of the explant. Various types of explants have been used for undergoing SE in other species, and include seedlings, leaves, petioles, shoot meristems, roots, seeds, cotyledons, zygotic embryos, and immature zygotic embryos [23].
Somatic tissues from the coconut, such as young leaves, stem sections from young seedlings, and tissues from immature inflorescences have all been studied as explants to generate the embryogenic callus of coconut. The culture of living tissues of coconut was first undertaken by Eeuwens and Blake, 1977 [18], who used seedling stem and immature inflorescence sections as explants. The first SE attempts on coconut explants showed a calloid-like structure to be formed, which is a more organized structure of the callus [24]. Under suitable conditions, plantlets can be produced from the somatic embryos that formed from this embryogenic callus [25]. Although this early approach was inefficient, the embryogenic callus induction rate was increased in later years [26]. In many species it is known that the selection of an explant from a healthy and vigorously growing plant is particularly important to obtain good tissue culture outcomes [27]. In coconut, the type and stage of explant development can significantly affect the responsiveness of the explant to tissue culture [28]. Somatic tissues, such as rachilla segments from immature explants, were commonly used in the early studies of coconut tissue culture because true-to-type clones could be produced from such tissues [7]. However, it is challenging to use these types of coconut tissues. For example, the correct age of the inflorescence tissue to be used as an explant can be difficult to determine [29], and harvesting this material is destructive if not fatal to the palm. Furthermore, the callus induction rate from inflorescence tissues is often lower than 30%, with poor repeatability [30][31].
Zygotic tissues such as embryos or plumules have also been used as explants in coconut SE work [13]. Adkins et al., 1999 [32] found that immature zygotic embryos were superior explant tissues for SE, with a callus induction rate of 50%, compared to just 3% from mature embryos. Similarly, Karunaratne and Periyapperuma 1989 [33] reported that embryos over 8 months of age were already undergoing germination and therefore they were not suitable for callus formation. Whole embryos, in addition to sections of embryos, have been used as explants [32][34]. For embryo sections, the middle portion was found to be the best for callus formation, ranging from 58% to 83% [32][35]. This may be because the central tissue contains much of the embryo axis. The callus induction rate was shown to be dramatically decreased when the surrounding, cotyledonary tissue was used [7][34].
More recently, plumular tissues from germinating zygotic embryos [11][36][37][38] and rachilla sections from immature inflorescences [39][40] have been successfully used for coconut SE. Of these, the plumular tissue was found to be the most suitable for SE [30][41][42][43]. Perez-Nunez et al., 2006 [11] hypothesized that 98,000 somatic embryos could be produced from a single zygotic plumule. The technique would need to use the repeated subculture of plumular callus, which could rapidly increase the total cell biomass and promote the formation of secondary somatic embryos [44]. Such an approach, however, may not produce true-to-type plantlets unless the self-pollinating Dwarf varieties of coconut are cultured, and the process may suffer from somaclonal variation if the number of callus subcultures is numerous.
Leaves from 5 year old coconut palms have also been used as explants, but the callus induction rate was very low, at less than 20%, and somatic embryos took up to 6 months to develop [45][46]. Shoot meristem explants isolated from zygotic embryos achieved a 79% callus induction rate [47]. However, the shoot meristem explant excised from the in vitro germinated embryos showed a lower percentage of SE callus formed, and this may be due to meristematic multiplication inhibition by the presence of cotyledonary tissues [47]. Although anthers have also been used as an explant source [14][48][49][50][51], the frequency of plantlet production was low, at only 0 to 7% from calli/embryos that were subcultured in SE induction and maturation medium [52]. Unfertilized ovaries have been used as another novel explant type for coconut SE, particularly as such somatic tissues would be capable of producing true-to-type plantlets from all coconut varieties. Using such explants, a callus induction rate of 41% [42] has been achieved with an efficiency of plantlet production of about 30%, resulting in 83 plantlets from 32 ovaries [52], which is still below what would be needed for a commercial application [53][54]. Thus, the results suggest that plumular tissues are the preferred explant type for large-scale production of Dwarf coconut types. However, further work is required on somatic tissues, such as ovaries and young inflorescence tissues, to enable the production of true-to-type clones from Tall coconut types. The studies on coconut explants and varieties are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. In vitro studies on explant, media composition, and plant growth regulators in order from older to recent studies in coconut.
Explant Media Composition and Plant Growth Regulators Variety/Hybrid References
Basal Media (Callus Induction) Plant Growth Regulator (Callus Induction) Plant Growth Regulator (Embryo Maturation)
Rachilla and stem Eeuwen’s Y3 basal medium and sucrose (6.8%), and agar (0.39%) 2,4-D (0.1 μM), BAP (5 μM), and GA3 (10 μM) BAP Jamaican Malayan Dwarf [18]
Young foliage tissue Eeuwens’ salts, Morel’s Vitamin, sucrose (30 g/L) and agar (0.8%) 2,4-D or TCPP BAP Malayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD) × West African Tall (WAT) [45]
Root, stem and leave Murashige and Skoog (MS) macro-nutrients, Y3 micro-nutrients, improved Blake vitamin, sucrose (5%), Activated Charcoal (AC; 0.25%), 300 mgL−1 casein hydrolysate and myo-inositol (100 mgL−1), 5% agar 2,4-D (100 μM), BAP (5 μM) and 2iP (5 μM) 2,4-D (100 μM), BAP (5 μM) and 2iP (5 μM) Jamaican Malayan Dwarf [55]
Rachilla, stem and foliage Eeuwen’s Y3, sucrose (5%), and AC (0.25%), and agar (0.6%) 2,4-D (452 μM), NAA (2.69 μM), BAP (8.88 μM), Kinetin (4.65 μM) 2,4-D (2.3 μM) West Coast Tall [56]
Young embryo Gamborg’s B5 medium, and agar (0.7%) IAA, NAA, 2,4-D, BAP or Kinetin (0.5 mg/L to 5 mg/L) IAA (2 mg/L) West Coast Tall [57]
Embryo Broad spectrum tissue culture medium, sucrose (30 g/L), AC (0.25%) and agar (0.8%) 2,4-D (12–20 μM) 2,4-D (8 μM and 2 μM), BAP (10 μM) and Kinetin (10 μM) Typica [33]
Immature inflorescence Eeuwen’s Y3, Morel and Wetmore (MW) Vitamins, sucrose (116.8 mM) and AC (2 g/L)   2,4-D and BAP (10−5 M) MYD × WAT,
WAT × MYD and
MYD
[58]
Immature inflorescence Modified MS macro nutrients, Nitsch micronutrients, MW Vitamins, EDTA (26 mg), iron (24.9 mg), sucrose (20 g/L), ascorbic acid (100 mg/L), malic acid (100 mg/L), adenine sulfate (30 mg/L), agar (7.5 g/L) and AC (3 g/L) 2,4-D (100 mg/L) and BAP (1 mg/ L) 2,4-D (130 mg/L) and BAP (140 mg/L) PB 121 (MYDxWAT) [59]
Embryo slice Eeuwen’s Y3, sucrose (90 mM), AC (2.5 g/L) and Agar (0.7%) 2,4-D (125 μM), AVG (1 µM) and 2,4-D (50 μM) Batu Layar Tall [60]
Plumule Eeuwen’s Y3, AC (2.5 g/L) and gelrite (3 g/L) 2,4-D (0.1 mM) 2,4-D (1 μM) and BAP (50 μM) Malayan Dwarf [41]
Mature embryo slice M2, sucrose (0–100 g/L), and AC (2.5 g/L), and agar (7.5 g/L) 2,4-D (125 μM) and ABA (0–90 μM) 2,4-D Batu Layar Tall [34]
Immature embryo BM72, sucrose (40 g/L) and AC (0.25%), and agar (0.8%) 2,4-D (24 μM), and ABA (2.5–7.5 μM) 2,4-D and cytokinin (2–10 μM) Sri Lanka Tall [20]
Plumule BM72, sucrose (4% w/v), and agar (0.8%) 2,4-D (24 μM) N/A Sri Lanka Tall [61]
Plumule Eeuwen’s Y3, sucrose (30 g/L), AC (2.5 g/L), gelrite (3 g/L) 2,4-D (600 μM) 2,4-D (6 μM), and BAP (300 μM) Green Malayan Dwarf [11]
Plumule Eeuwen’s Y3, gelrite (3 g/L) and AC (2.5 g/L) 2,4-D (0.65 mM) 2,4-D (6 μM), and BAP (300 μM) Green Malayan Dwarf [62]
Unfertilized ovary CRI 72 and agar (2%) 2,4-D (100 μM) 2,4-D (66 μM) and ABA (5 μM) Sri Lanka Tall [29]
Immature inflorescence Eeuwen’s Y3, sucrose (30 g/L) and AC (2.5 g/L) Spermine (0.01 µM), Smoke-saturated-water (10%) and auxin (500 µ M). 2,4-D and PGR free no PGR and Malayan Yellow Dwarf [63]
Inflorescence CRI 72, sucrose (40 g/L) and AC (0.1%) 2,4-D (100 μM) and TDZ (9 μM) No growth regulators Sri Lanka Tall [52]
Rachilla Eeuwen’s Y3, AC (2.5 g/L) and gelrite (3 g/L)) 2,4-D (0.65 mM) 2,4-D (0.325 and 0.006 mM), BAP (0.3 mM) and GA3 (0.0046 mM) MYD × MXPT Malayan Red Dwarf) MRD × (Tagnanan) TAGT [40]
Plumule Eeuwen’s Y3, MW vitamins, agar (2.5 g/L) 2,4-D (600 μM) 2,4-D (6 μM) and BAP (300 μM) MYD, Makapuno, XXD and PB121 [10]
Plumule Eeuwen’s Y3, sucrose (50 g/L), AC (2.5 g/L) and gelrite (3 g/L) 2,4-D (600 μM) 2,4-D (6 μM) and (300 μM BAP) Green Malayan Dwarf [38]

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), thidiazuron (TDZ), abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellic acid (GA3), indole acetic acid (IAA), naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG).

References

  1. Foale, M. The Coconut Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities of the Tree of Life; Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra, Australia, 2003; ISBN 1-86320-370-2.
  2. ICC. Statistics; International Coconut Community: Jakarta, Indonesia, 2018.
  3. Rethinam, P. International Scenario of Coconut Sector. In The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.)—Research and Development Perspectives; Nampoothiri, K., Krishnakumar, V., Thampan, P., Nair, M., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2018; pp. 21–56. ISBN 978-981-13-2754-4.
  4. Salum, U.; Foale, M.; Biddle, J.; Bazrafshan, A.; Adkins, S. Towards the sustainability of the “tree of life”: An introduction. In Coconut Biotechnology: Towards the Sustainability of the ‘Tree of Life’; Adkins, S., Foale, M., Bourdeix, R., Nguyen, Q., Biddle, J., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; ISBN 978-3-030-44988-9.
  5. Suriya, A.C.N.P. Coconut. In Breeding Oilseed Crops for Sustainable Production; Gupta, S.K., Ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2016; pp. 201–216.
  6. Sabana, A.A.; Rajesh, M.K.; Antony, G. Dynamic changes in the expression pattern of miRNAs and associated target genes during coconut somatic embryogenesis. Planta 2020, 251, 1–18.
  7. Sáenz, L.; Montero-Cortés, M.; Pérez-Nuñez, T.; Azpeitia-Morales, A.; Andrade-Torres, A.; Córdova-Lara, I.; Chan-Rodríguez, J.L.; Sandoval-Cancino, G.; Rivera-Solis, G.; Oropeza-Salín, C. Somatic embryogenesis in Cocos nucifera L. In Somatic Embryogenesis: Fundamental Aspects and Applications; Loyola-Vargas, V.M., Ochoa-Alejo, N., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 297–318.
  8. Samosir, Y.M.S.; Rillo, E.P.; Mashud, N.; Vu Thi My Lien, V.T.M.; Kembu, A.A.; Faure, M.; Magdalita, P.; Damasco, O.; Novarianto, H.S.W.; Adkins, S.W. Revealing the potential of elite coconut types through tissue culture. In Coconut Revival—New Possibilities for the ‘Tree of Life’, Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum, Cairns, Australia, 22–24 November 2005; ACIAR: Canberra, Australia, 2006; Volume 125, pp. 43–48.
  9. Batugal, P.; Bourdeix, R.; Baudouin, L. Coconut breeding. In Breeding Plantation Tree Crops: Tropical Species; Jain, S.M., Priyadarshan, P.M., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2009; pp. 327–375.
  10. Nguyen, Q.T. Clonal Propagation of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) for Elite Seedling Production and Germplasm Exchange. Ph.D. Thesis, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia, 2018.
  11. Pérez-Núñez, M.T.; Chan, J.L.; Sáenz, L.; González, T.; Verdeil, J.L.; Oropeza, C. Improved somatic embryogenesis from Cocos nucifera (L.) plumule explants. In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. Plant 2006, 42, 37–43.
  12. Fernando, S.C.; Vidhanaarachchi, V.R.M.; Weerakoon, L.K.; Santha, E.S. What makes clonal propagation of coconut difficult? Asia Pac. J. Mol. Biol. Biotechnol. 2010, 18, 163–165.
  13. Nguyen, Q.T.; Bandupriya, H.D.; Lopez-villalobos, A.; Sisunandar, S.; Foale, M.; Adkins, S.W. Tissue culture and associated biotechnological interventions for the improvement of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.): A review. Planta 2015, 242, 1059–1076.
  14. Bandupriya, H.D.D.; Femando, S.C.; Vidhanaarachchil, V.R.M. Micropropagation and androgenesis in coconut: An assessment of Sri Lankan implication. Cocos 2016, 22, 31–47.
  15. Biddle, J.; Nguyen, Q.; Mu, Z.H.; Foale, M.; Adkins, S. Germplasm Reestablishment and Seedling Production: Embryo Culture. In Coconut Biotechnology: Towards the Sustainability of the ‘Tree of Life’; Adkins, S., Foale, M., Bourdeix, R., Nguyen, Q., Biddle, J., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerand, 2020; pp. 199–225. ISBN 978-3-030-44988-9.
  16. Fehér, A.; Pasternak, T.; Otvos, K.; Miskolczi, P.; Dudits, D. Induction of embryogenic competence in somatic plant cells: A review. Biologia 2002, 57, 5–12.
  17. Rabechault, H.; Ahee, J.; Guenin, G. Colonies cellulaires et formes embryoides obentues in vitro a partir de cultures d’embryons de Palmier a huile (Elaesis guineensis Jacq. var. dura Becc.). C. R. Acad. Sci. 1970, 270, 3067–3070.
  18. Eeuwens, C.; Blake, J. Culture of coconut and date palm tissue with a view to vegetative propagation. Acta Hortic. 1977, 78, 277–286.
  19. Hornung, R.; Verdeil, J.L. Somatic embryogenesis in coconut from immature inflorescence explants. In Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology; Oropeza, C., Verdeil, J.L., Ashburner, G.R., Cardeña, R., Santamaría, J., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1999; pp. 297–308. ISBN 978-94-015-9283-3.
  20. Fernando, S.; Gamage, C. Abscisic acid induced somatic embryogenesis in immature embryo explants of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). J. Plant Sci. 2000, 151, 193–198.
  21. Samosir, Y.M.S.; Godwin, I.D.; Adkins, S.W. An improved protocol for somatic embryogenesis in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). In Proceedings of the International Symposium of Biotechnology in Tropical and Subtropical Species, Brisbane, Australia, 29 September–3 October 1997; Drew, R.A., Ed.; ISHS: Leuven, Belgium, 1998; pp. 467–475.
  22. Quiroz-Figueroa, F.R.; Rojas-Herrera, R.; Galaz-Avalos, R.M.; Loyola-Vargas, V.M. Embryo production through somatic embryogenesis can be used to study cell differentiation in plants. Plant Cell. Tissue Organ Cult. 2006, 86, 285–301.
  23. Gaj, M. Factors influencing somatic embryogenesis induction and plant regeneration with particular reference to Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Plant Growth Regul. 2004, 43, 27–47.
  24. Brackpool, A.L.; Branton, R.L.; Blake, J. Regeneration in palms. Cell Cult. Somat. cell. Genet. Plants 1986, 3, 207–222.
  25. Blake, J. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.): Micropropagation. In Legumes and Oil Seed Crops I; Bajaj, Y.P.S., Ed.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1990; pp. 538–554. ISBN 978-3-642-74448-8.
  26. Verdeil, J.-L.; Huet, C.; Grosdemange, F.; Buffard-Morel, J. Plant regeneration from cultured immature inflorescences of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.): Evidence for somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell Rep. 1994, 13, 218–221.
  27. Loyola-Vargas, V.M.; Ochoa-Alejo, N. An Introduction to Plant Tissue Culture: Advances and Perspectives. In Plant Cell Culture Protocols; Methods in Molecular Biology; Loyola-Vargas, V., Ochoa-Alejo, N., Eds.; Humana Press: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 1815, pp. 3–13.
  28. Karun, A. Coconut tissue culture: The Indian initiatives, experiences and achievements. CORD 2017, 33, 11.
  29. Perera, P.; Yakandawala, D.; Verdeil, J.-L.; Hocher, V.; Weerakoon, L. Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from unfertilised ovary explants of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Trop. Agric. Res. 2008, 20, 226–233.
  30. Hornung, R. Micropropagation of Cocos nucifera L. from plumular tissue excised from mature zygotic embryos. Plant. Rech. Dev. 1995, 2, 38–41.
  31. Vidhanaarachchi, V.; Weerakoon, L. Callus induction and direct shoot formation in in vitro-cultured immature inflorescence tissues of coconut. Cocos 1997, 12, 39–43.
  32. Adkins, S.W.; Samosir, Y.M.S.; Godwin, I.D. Control of environmental conditions and the use of polyamines can optimise the conditions for the initiation and proliferation of coconut somatic embryos. Curr. Adv. Coconut Biotechnol. 1999, 35, 321–340.
  33. Karunaratne, S.; Periyapperuma, K. Culture of immature embryos of coconut, Cocos nucifera L: Callus proliferation and somatic embryogenesis. Plant Sci. 1989, 62, 247–253.
  34. Samosir, Y.M.S.; Godwin, I.D.; Adkins, S.W. The use of osmotically active agents and abscisic acid can optimise the maturation of coconut somatic embryos. In Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology; Oropeza, C., Verdeil, J.L., Ashburner, G.R., Cardeña, R., Santamaría, J.M., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1999; pp. 341–354.
  35. Zuraida, A.; Kumaran, G.S.; Ahmad, N.; Farhanah, M.S.; Nazreena, O.A. Callus induction from zygotic embryos of coconut MATAG F2. Asian Res. J. Agric. 2017, 3, 1–6.
  36. Montero-Cortés, M.; Rodríguez-Paredes, F.; Burgeff, C.; Pérez-Nunez, T.; Córdova, I.; Oropeza, C.; Verdeil, J.L.; Sáenz, L. Characterisation of a Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (CDKA) gene expressed during somatic embryogenesis of coconut palm. Plant Cell Tissue Organ 2010, 102, 251–258.
  37. Lakshmi, J.K.; Bhavyashree, U.; Fayas, T.P.; Sajni, K.K.; Karun, A. Histological studies of cellular differentiation during somatic embryogenesis of coconut plumule-derived calli. J. Plant Crops 2015, 43, 196–203.
  38. Sáenz, L.; Chan, J.L.; Narvaez, M.; Oropeza, C. Protocol for the micropropagation of coconut from plumule explants. In Plant Cell Culture Protocols; Loyola-Vargas, V.M., Ochoa-Alejo, N., Eds.; Humana Press: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 161–170. ISBN 978-1-4939-8593-7.
  39. Oropeza, C.; Sandoval-Cancino, G.; Sáenz, L.; Narváez, M.; Rodríguez, G.; Chan, J.L. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) somatic embryogenesis using immature inflorescence explants. In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants; Jain, S.M., Gupta, P., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; Volume 2, pp. 103–111.
  40. Sandoval-Cancino, G.; Sáenz, L.; Chan, J.; Oropeza, C. Improved formation of embryogenic callus from coconut immature inflorescence explants. In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. Plant 2016, 52, 367–378.
  41. Chan, J.; Sáenz, L.; Talavera, C.; Hornung, R.; Robert, M.; Oropeza, C. Regeneration of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) from plumule explants through ca somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell Rep. 1998, 17, 515–521.
  42. Perera, P.I.; Hocher, V.; Verdeil, J.L.; Doulbeau, S.; Yakandawala, D.M.; Weerakoon, L.K. Unfertilized ovary: A novel explant for coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell. Rep. 2007, 26, 21–28.
  43. Sáenz, L.; Chan, J.L.; Souza, R.; Hornung, R.; Rillo, E.; Verdeil, J.L.; Oropeza, C. Somatic embryogenesis and regeneration in coconut from plumular explants. In Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology; Oropeza, C., Verdeil, J.L., Ashburner, G.R., Cardeña, R., Santamaría, J., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1999; pp. 309–319.
  44. Raemakers, C.; Jacobsen, E.A.; Visser, R. Secondary somatic embryogenesis and applications in plant breeding. Euphytica 1995, 81, 93–107.
  45. Pannetier, C.; Buffard-Morel, J. Production of somatic embryos from leaf tissues of coconut, Cocos nucifera L. In Proceedings of the International Congress on Plant Tissue Culture and Cell Culture, Montpellier, France, 1982, 11–16 July; pp. 755–756.
  46. Buffard-morel, J.; Verdeil, J.; Pannetier, C. Vegetative propagation of coconut palm through somatic embryogenesis, obtention of plantlets from leaf explant. In Proceedings of the 8th international biotechnology symposium, Paris, France, 17–22 July 1988; p. 117.
  47. Bhavyashree, U.; Jayaraj, K.L.; Muralikrishna, K.S.; Sajini, K.K.; Rajesh, M.K.; Anitha, K. Initiation of coconut cell suspension culture from shoot meristem derived embryogenic calli: A preliminary study. J. Phytol. 2016, 8, 13–16.
  48. Kovoor, A. Palm tissue culture: State of the art and its application to the coconut. In FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1981; pp. 62–69.
  49. Iyer, R. Embryo and tissue culture for crop improvement (especially of perennials), germplasm conservation and exchange--relevance to developing countries. In Tissue culture of economically important plants. In Proceedings of the International Symposium, the Department Botany, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 28–30 April 1981.
  50. Thanh-Tuyen, N.T.; De Guzman, E.V. Formation of pollen embryos in cultured anthers of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Plant Sci. Lett. 1983, 29, 81–88.
  51. Monfort, S. Androgenesis of coconut: Embryos from anther culture. Z. Für Pflanz. 1985, 94, 251–254.
  52. Perera, P.I.; Yakandawala, D.; Hocher, V.; Verdeil, J.-L.; Weerakoon, L.K. Effect of growth regulators on microspore embryogenesis in coconut anthers. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2009, 96, 171–180.
  53. Vidhanaarachchi, V.; Fernando, S.; Perera, P.; Weerakoon, L. Application of un-fertilized ovary culture to identify elite mother palms of Cocos nucifera L. with regenerative potential. J. Natl. Sci. Found. 2013, 41, 29–34.
  54. Bandupriya, H.; Iroshini, W.; Perera, S.; Vidhanaarachchi, V.; Fernando, S.; Santha, E.; Gunathilake, T. Genetic fidelity testing using SSR marker assay confirms trueness to type of micropropagated coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantlets derived from unfertilized ovaries. Open Plant Sci. J. 2017, 10, 46–54.
  55. Branton, R.L.; Blake, J. Development of organized structures in callus derived from explants of Cocos nucifera L. Ann. Bot. 1983, 52, 673–678.
  56. Gupta, P.K.; Kendurkar, S.V.; Kulkarni, V.M.; Shirgurkar, M.V.; Mascarenhas, A.F. Somatic embryogenesis and plants from zygotic embryos of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) In vitro. Plant Cell Rep. 1984, 3, 222–225.
  57. Bhalla-Sarin, N.; Bagga, S.; Sopory, S.K.; Guha-Mukherjee, S. Induction and differentiation of callus from embryos of Cocos nucifera L. by IAA-conjugates. Plant Cell Rep. 1986, 5, 322–324.
  58. Verdeil, J.L.; Buffard-Morel, J. Somatic embryogenesis in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). In Somatic Embryogenesis and Synthetic Seed I; Bajaj, Y.P.S., Ed.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1995; pp. 299–317. ISBN 978-3-662-03091-2.
  59. Magnaval, C.; Noirot, M.; Verdeil, J.L.; Blattes, A.; Huet, C.; Grosdemange, F.; Beulé, T.; Buffard-Morel, J. Specific nutritional requirements of coconut calli (Cocos nucifera L.) during somatic embryogenesis induction. J. Plant Physiol. 1997, 150, 719–728.
  60. Adkins, S.W.; Samosir, Y.M.; Ernawati, A.; Godwin, I.D.; Drew, R.A. Control of ethylene and use of polyamines can optimise the conditions for somatic embryogenesis in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and papaya (Carica papaya L.). Acta Hortic. 1998, 461, 459–466.
  61. Fernando, S.C.; Verdeil, J.L.; Hocher, V.; Weerakoon, L.K.; Hirimburegama, K. Histological analysis of plant regeneration from plumule explants of Cocos nucifera. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2003, 72, 281–283.
  62. Saenz, L.; Azpeitia, A.; Chuc-Armendariz, B.; Chan, J.L.; Verdeil, J.L.; Hocher, V.; Oropeza, C. Morphological and histological changes during somatic embryo formation from coconut plumule explants. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.-Plant 2006, 42, 19–25.
  63. Antonova, I. Somatic Embryogenesis for Micropropagation of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 1 March 2009.
More
Information
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
View Times: 504
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 19 Oct 2021
1000/1000