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Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain a major cause of death and morbidity globally and diet plays a crucial role in the disease prevention and pathology. The negative perception of dairy fats stems from the effort to reduce dietary saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake due to their association with increased cholesterol levels upon consumption and the increased risk of CVD development. Recent research and meta-analyses have demonstrated the benefits of full-fat dairy consumption, based on higher bioavailability of high-value nutrients and anti-inflammatory properties.
Author, Year |
Country |
Study Design |
Study Focus |
Outcome |
Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thompson, 2005 [54] |
USA |
Dietary intervention |
The effects of high-dairy and high-fibre consumption on weight loss in 90 obese subjects was assessed |
CRP was reduced by 0.8 mg/L from baseline (p < 0.0001), however there was no significant difference between the dairy diet and the others tested |
An insignificant reduction of CRP was observed following dairy consumption in obese participants |
Sofi, 2010 [55] |
Italy |
Dietary intervention |
Effect of pecorino cheese naturally enriched with cis-9, trans-11 CLA on inflammatory markers in 10 healthy participants |
Reduction in arachidonic acid-induced platelet aggregation (pre: 87.8 ± 1.76% vs. post: 77.7 ± 3.56%; p = 0.04), improvement of erythrocyte filtration rate and a reduction of TNF-α (40.1%), IL-6 (43.2%) and IL-8 (36.5%) |
Dietary short-term intake of pecorino cheese rich in cis-9, trans-11 CLA caused favourable biochemical changes of inflammatory and atherosclerotic markers |
Rosado, 2011 [56] |
Mexico |
Dietary intervention |
Effect of adding low-fat milk on anthropometrics, body composition, CRP etc. in energy restricted diets in 139 women |
Change in CRP after low-fat milk was 0.2 mg/L (95% CI 1.1–1.6) |
Dairy intake had no significant effect on CRP concentrations |
Stancliffe, 2011 [53] |
USA |
Dietary intervention |
Effects of an adequate full-fat dairy diet versus low-dairy (both mainly milk and yoghurt) intake on inflammatory markers in 40 overweight individuals with metabolic syndrome over a 12-week period versus a low-fat control |
After 7 days, the adequate full-fat dairy diet decreased plasma malondialdehyde and oxidised LDL (35% and 11% respectively, p < 0.01), TNF-α decreased by 35% (p < 0.05), which further decreased by week 12. By week 12, decreases in IL-6 (21%, p < 0.02) and MCP-1 (24%, p < 0.05) were observed. Low-dairy intake exerted no effects on oxidative or inflammatory markers |
An increase in dairy intake attenuates oxidative and inflammatory stress in metabolic syndrome |
Nestel, 2012 [57] |
Australia |
Dietary intervention |
Assessing the effects of low-fat or fermented dairy product intake on inflammation and atherogenesis on 13 overweight participants, using 5-single meal tests |
No significant changes in the levels of inflammatory biomarkers (CRP, IL-6, IL-13, TNF-α, VCAM-1 and others) were observed |
Authors could not confirm the reported increments in inflammation after high fat meals |
Esmaillzadeh, 2010 [58] |
Iran |
Cross-sectional |
Assessing the effect of dairy products on inflammatory markers in 486 women |
Low-fat dairy was inversely associated with CRP (β = −0.04), IL-6 (β = −0.02) and VCAM-1 (β = −0.06); high fat dairy was positively associated with log-transformed values of serum amyloid A (β = 0.08) and VCAM-1 (β = 0.05) |
Evidence suggests there is an independent relationship between dairy consumption and some markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction |
Panagiotakis, 2010 [59] |
Greece |
Cross-sectional |
The evaluation of effects of dairy product consumption on levels of inflammatory markers in blood samples from fasting adults with no evidence of previous chronic inflammatory disease |
Levels of inflammatory markers such as CRP, IL-6 and TNF-α were 29, 9 and 20% lower, respectively (p = 0.01), in people who consumed more than 14 servings of dairy per week compared with those who had fewer than 8 servings per week (p = 0.05) |
This inverse association between dairy consumption and levels of inflammatory markers in healthy adults indicates that dairy products may be protective against chronic inflammatory diseases |
Wang, 2011 [60] |
USA |
Cross-sectional |
305 adolescents were tested for serum phospholipid fatty acid markers of dairy intake (C15:0 & C17:0), which were linked to biomarkers of inflammation by generalised linear regression analyses adjusted for age, gender, race, tanner score, total energy intake and physical activity |
Phospholipid dairy fatty acids, elevated by dairy consumption, were inversely associated with CRP, 8-iso-PGF2α and urinary 15-keto-dihydro-PGF2α in overweight but not in normal weight adolescents (all pinteraction < 0.05). However, higher PL dairy fatty acid levels were associated with lower IL-6 among all adolescents. Adjustment for dietary intake of calcium, vitamin D, protein, total flavonoids and ω-3 fatty acids did not alter the findings |
Dairy-specific saturated fats C15:0 and 17:0 fatty acids, may contribute to the potential health benefits of dairy products, especially for overweight adolescents |
Gadotti, 2017 [61] |
Brazil |
Cross-sectional |
To assess the effect of dairy consumption and plasma inflammatory markers in 259 participants. Subjects were assigned groups depending on inflammatory status and multiple logistic regression tests were conducted to estimate the odds ratio (OR) for the inflammatory cluster across tertiles of dairy consumption |
The highest tertile of yoghurt consumption was 0.34 [95% CI: (0.14–0.81)] relative to the reference tertile, demonstrating a linear effect (ptrend = 0.015). Cheese consumption exhibited an OR of 2.49 (95% CI: (1.09–5.75)) relative to the reference |
Increasing yoghurt consumption might have a protective effect on inflammation, while cheese consumption seems to be associated with a pro-inflammatory status |
van Meijl, 2010 [62] |
Netherlands |
Randomised crossover |
Effects of low-fat milk and yoghurt intake on inflammatory markers in 35 overweight or obese participants versus carbohydrate controls for 8 weeks |
No significant effects on IL-6, MCP-1, ICAM-1 or VCAM-1 versus control. TNF-α index decreased by 53 (p = 0.015) |
Low-fat dairy consumption may increase concentrations of s-TNFR but it has no effects on other inflammatory markers of chronic inflammation and endothelial function |
Zemel, 2010 [63] |
USA |
Randomised crossover |
Effects of a dairy-rich, high calcium diet on oxidative and inflammatory stress in 10 overweight and 10 obese individuals compared with soy supplemented eucaloric diets |
After 7 days, dairy intake decreased oxidative stress by lowering 8-isoprostane-F2α (12%, p < 0.0005), plasma malondialdehyde (22%, p < 0.0005). Adiponectin increased significantly (20%, p < 0.002). Inflammatory markers were significantly reduced versus the control diet: IL-6 (13%, p < 0.01); TNF-α (15%, p < 0.002); MCP-1 (10%, p < 0.0006) |
An increase in dairy food intake produces significant and substantial suppression of the oxidative and inflammatory stress associated with overweight and obesity |
Nestel, 2013 [64] |
Australia |
Randomised crossover |
Consumption of full-fat versus low-fat dairy on biomarkers of inflammation in 12 overweigh individuals |
75% of those who consumed low-fat products versus full-fat fermented products tended to have higher levels of inflammatory markers tested (CRP, IL-13, TNF-α, VCAM-1 and others; ptrend < 0.001) |
Short-term diets of low-fat dairy products did not lead to a favourable biomarker profile associated with CVD risk compared with the full-fat dairy products. Full-fat fermented dairy products are more favourable |
Labonté, 2014 [65] |
Canada |
Randomised crossover |
Assessing the impact of dairy intake versus energy equivalent products on inflammatory markers in 112 healthy participants with systemic inflammation |
After dairy consumption, no significant changes in CRP (7.3%, p = 0.47). However, both the control and dairy diet reduced IL-6 (17.6% and 19.9%, respectively; p < 0.0001 for both, p = 0.77 for between-diet comparison |
Short-term consumption of a combination of low- and high-fat dairy products as part of a healthy diet has no adverse effects on inflammation |
Dugan, 2016 [66] |
USA |
Randomised crossover |
Effect of low-fat dairy consumption on hepatic enzymes and inflammation in 37 participants with metabolic syndrome versus a carbohydrate control |
Lower levels of TNF-α (p = 0.028) and MCP-1 (p = 0.001) were observed in women after low-fat dairy intake versus the control group. The hepatic steatosis index was also reduced (p = 0.001) |
Three servings of dairy per day improved both liver function and systemic inflammation in subjects with metabolic syndrome |
Zemel, 2008 [67] |
USA |
Randomised controlled longitudinal |
Evaluation of feeding calcium rich high-dairy eucaloric diet and hypocaloric diet versus low dairy group intake in obese participants over 24 weeks |
High-dairy eucaloric diet and a hypocaloric diet resulted in an 11% (p < 0.03) and 29% (p < 0.01) decrease in CRP, respectively (post-test vs. pre-test), whereas there was no significant change in the low-dairy groups. Adiponectin decreased by 8% in subjects fed the eucaloric high-dairy diet (p = 0.003) and 18% for the hypocaloric high-dairy diet (p = 0.05) |
Dietary calcium suppresses adipose tissue oxidative and inflammatory stress |
de Aguilar-Nascimento, 2011 [68] |
Brazil |
Randomised controlled longitudinal |
Effects of an early enteral formula on the levels of glutathione and inflammatory markers in 25 aged patients with acute ischemic stroke. Group 1 consumed whey, group 2, the control consumed casein |
Mortality was similar between groups (33%; p = 1.00) and was associated with higher IL-6 levels (group 1: 73.7 ± 24.7; versus group 2: 16.6 ± 2.4 pg/dL; p = 0.04) and CRP (82.0 ± 35.6 vs. 48.3 ± 14.5 mg/L; p = 0.02). Serum IL-6 was lower (p = 0.03) and glutathione was higher (p = 0.03) in whey protein-fed patients versus the casein group |
Enteral formula containing whey protein may decrease inflammation and increase antioxidant defences in elderly patients with ischemic stroke |
Jones, 2013 [69] |
Canada |
Randomised controlled longitudinal |
Assessing a diet rich in calcium and dairy products on weight loss and appetite during energy restriction in 49 overweight and obese individuals for 12 weeks, versus a suitable control. A meal tolerance test was carried out in week 12 |
MCP-1 was reduced after 30 mins with Dairy/Calcium group compared with the control in the meal tolerance test (p = 0.04). No change was observed for IL-6, TNF-α, or IL-1β |
Modest reduction in MCP-1 |
Pei, 2017 [70] |
USA |
Randomised controlled |
Premenopausal women (BMI 18.5–27 and 30–40 kg/m2) were randomised to consume 339 g of low-fat yoghurt (yoghurt non-obese (YN); yoghurt obese (YO)) or 324 g of soya pudding (control non-obese; control obese (CO)) daily for 9 weeks (n 30/group). Fasting blood samples were analysed for various inflammatory markers |
After 9-week yoghurt consumption, YO and YN had decreased TNF-α/sTNFR RII. Yoghurt consumption increased plasma IgM EndoCAb regardless of obesity status. sCD14 was not affected by diet but LBP/sCD14 was lowered in both YN and YO. Yoghurt intervention increased plasma 2-arachidonoylglycerol in YO but not YN. YO peripheral blood mononuclear cells expression of NF-κB inhibitor α and transforming growth factor β1 increased relative to CO at 9 weeks |
Consumption of low-fat yoghurt for 9 weeks reduced biomarkers of chronic inflammation and endotoxin exposure in premenopausal women compared with a non-dairy control food |
Wannamethee, 2018 [71] |
UK |
Prospective cohort study |
This study investigated serum CLA (measured as a % of total fatty acids) and the risk of incident heart failure in 3806 older men aged between 60 and 79 years using metabolomics. The men were without prevalent HF and were followed up for an average of 13 years, during which there were 295 incident HF cases |
CLA was adversely associated with cholesterol levels but was inversely associated with CRP and NT-proBNP. No association between CLA and CHD. High CLA was associated with reduced risk of HF (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval], 0.64 [0.43–0.96]; quartile 4 versus quartile 1). Elevated CLA was associated with reduced HF risk only in those with higher dairy fat intake, a major dietary source of CLA (p = 0.03) |
The reduced risk of HF was partially explained by NT-proBNP. High dairy fat intake was not associated with incident coronary heart disease but was associated with reduced risk of HF, largely because of the inverse effect of CLA |
BMI = body mass index; CHD = coronary heart disease; CI = confidence interval; CLA = conjugated linoleic acid; CRP = C-reactive protein; EndoCab = endogenous endotoxin-core antibody; HF = heart failure; IL-X = interleukin-β/6/13 etc.; MCP-1 = monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; NF-κB = nuclear factor-κB; NT-proBNP = N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide; s-CD14 = soluble cluster of differentiation 14; s-TNFR = soluble tumour necrosis factor receptors; TNF-α = tumour necrosis factor-α; VCAM-1 = vascular cell adhesion molecule-1.