Artemisia Genus as Biopesticides

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Bianca Ivanescu	+ 6412 word(s)	6412	2021-06-01 09:49:39	\|
2	format correct	Camila Xu	+ 2765 word(s)	9177	2021-07-02 10:11:45	\| \|
3	format correct	Camila Xu	+ 2765 word(s)	9177	2021-07-02 10:13:15	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules26103061

The Artemisia L. genus includes over 500 species with worldwide distribution and diverse chemical composition. Many secondary metabolites of this genus are known for their antimicrobial, insecticidal, parasiticidal, and phytotoxic properties, which recommend them as possible biological control agents against plant pests. Given the negative impact of synthetic pesticides on human health and on the environment, Artemisia‐derived biopesticides and their nanoformulations emerge as promising ecofriendly alternatives to pest management.

antifungal antibacterial insecticidal nematicidal phytotoxic

1. Introduction

The Artemisia L. genus contains over 500 species, herbaceous plants and shrubs, widespread in the northern hemisphere, in Asia, Europe, and North America. Artemisia species are found in various ecosystems, ranging from arid regions to wetland at sea level as well as in the mountains. The largest number of species are located in the steppes of Asia ^[1]. Common names of Artemisia species are wormwood, mugwort, and sagebrush. Due to their biological and chemical diversity, Artemisia species have numerous applications in the treatment of plant and human diseases, in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. In addition, various Artemisia species are used all over the world as foods, spices, condiments, and beverages ^[2]. Many important medicinal plants belong to this genus and exert a range of therapeutic actions: antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiprotozoal, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, appetite stimulating, hepatoprotective, antispasmodic, bronchodilator, hypolipidemic, antihypertensive, analgesic, neuroprotective, neurotrophic, anti-depressant, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antitumor, estrogenic, anti-allergic, immunomodulatory, insecticidal, repellent, and anticonvulsant ^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8].

Most Artemisia species are aromatic plants that produce volatile oil in the secretory hairs on the aerial organs but also through the secretory ducts in the parenchyma tissues. Essential oils could be used as biocontrol agents based on the antibacterial, antifungal, repellent, insecticidal, nematicidal, and phytotoxic effect of volatile compounds. Moreover, the complex mixture of substances with different mechanisms of action, often having synergistic activity, can be effective in preventing the emergence of resistant strains of phytopathogens ^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12].

The global use of synthetic pesticides has many disadvantages, such as high cost, danger to non-target organisms, accumulation of pesticide residues in the environment, the emergence of resistant phytopathogenic strains, and negative impact on human health ^[12]. In contrast, biological pesticides can achieve pest management in an environmentally friendly way and could become safer alternatives for the treatment of crop diseases. Many agents are considered biopesticides, such as viruses, microbes, fungi, entomophagous invertebrates, parasitoids, predators, and substances produced by living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, plants, algae, animals, etc. Throughout this review, we will use the word “biopesticides” for plant-derived substances or extracts. During evolution, plants developed different mechanisms to defend themselves from predators and diseases by producing substances with bactericidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, nematicidal, or repellent activity. At present, these phytochemicals are explored as biocontrol agents for crops integrated pest management. Plant compounds are cheaper, safer for farmers, less toxic to non-target organisms, and rapidly degraded in the environment ^[13].

In this context, numerous researchers have identified new potential biopesticides in plants of the Artemisia genus. Since most species are fragrant, the vast majority of investigations have focused on the biological actions of volatile oils and compounds. Essential oils contain a variety of volatile molecules such as mono- and sesquiterpenes as well as phenolic-derived aromatic and aliphatic components ^[1]. The percentage of individual compounds in the essential oil is variable and depends on genetic factors (species, chemotype), plant origin, plant organ, period of harvest or developmental stage, environmental factors (climate, altitude, sun exposure), and cultivation conditions. Qualitative and quantitative differences in the composition of the essential oil can also be caused by drying methods, extraction procedure and time, quantification methods, and conditions of analysis ^[11]. All these elements could change the chemical composition of an essential oil, leading to changes in activity; thus, standardization is necessary to guarantee the effect, and also for regulatory and marketing purposes. Moreover, plants with desirable pesticide action may give low yields of essential oil, hence the need for new and more efficient extraction methods, which will increase the quantity and quality of extracted oil while reducing the time and cost of extraction ^[14].

2. Artemisia Compounds and Extracts with Pesticide Activity

2.1. Antifungal and Anti-Oomycete Activity

Pathogenic fungi produce almost 30% of crop diseases, threatening the health and food security of a growing human population dependent on substantial agricultural production ^[15]. Phytopathogenic fungi affect plants during their cultivation or after harvest, causing significant losses in crop plants. In addition, certain fungi (Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp. etc.) produce mycotoxins that endanger the health of consumers through hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and carcinogenic effects or even cause death ^[16]. In an effort to find an ecological solution to this problem, numerous studies have assessed the antifungal effect of Artemisia species, focusing especially on volatile oil and compounds. Different methods of evaluation were used in vitro, in planta, or in field conditions, and the results were expressed in various ways: half maximal inhibitory concentration—IC₅₀, minimal inhibitory concentration—MIC, minimum fungicidal concentration—MFC, median effective concentration—ED₅₀, inhibition zone, and percent of inhibition (Table 1).

Table 1. Antifungal activity of Artemisia extracts and compounds against phytopathogenic fungi.

Artemisia Species	Extract * or Compound Tested	Fungi	Inhibitory Dose	Type of Study	Reference
A. abrotanum fresh aerial parts	essential oil (eucalyptol)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 1200 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. absinthium aerial parts	essential oil (cis-epoxyocimene, (−)-cis-chrysanthenol, chrysanthenyl acetate, linalool and β-caryophyllene)	Botrytis cinerea	ED₅₀ = 0.01–0.07 mg/mL	in vitro	^[18]
		Fusarium moniliforme	ED₅₀ = 0.24–0.43 mg/mL
		F. oxysporum	ED₅₀ = 0.29–0.40 mg/mL
		F. solani	ED₅₀ = 0.24–0.50 mg/mL
A. absinthium leaves	aqueous extract (1:1)	Alternaria alternata	79.75% inhibition	in vitro	^[19]
		Mucor piriformis	73.04% inhibition
		Penicillium expansum	75.42% inhibition
A. annua fresh aerial parts	essential oil (artemisia ketone)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. annua aerial parts	essential oil (artemisia ketone, α-selinene and γ-terpineol)	Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 21.78 mg/mL	in vitro agar diffusion	^[20]
A. annua aerial parts		Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 14.18 mg/mL	in vitro spore germination	^[20]
A. annua leaves	methanol extract (ultrasound-assisted)	Fusarium oxysporum	36.94% inhibition	in vitro	^[21]
	essential oil (camphor, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, camphene)	F. oxysporum	MIC = 0.22 mg/mL
		F. solani	MIC = 0.37 mg/mL
	L-camphor	F. oxysporum	MIC = 0.11 mg/mL
	L-camphor	F. solani	MIC = 0.31 mg/mL
	DL-camphor	F. oxysporum	MIC = 0.14 mg/mL
	DL-camphor	F. solani	MIC = 0.16 mg/mL
	β-caryophyllene	F. oxysporum	MIC = 0.13 mg/mL
	β-caryophyllene	F. solani	MIC = 0.23 mg/mL
	camphene	F. oxysporum	MIC = 0.16 mg/mL
	camphene	F. solani	MIC = 0.22 mg/mL
	petroleum ether extract	F. oxysporum, F. solani	27.78% and 25% infection incidence, at 0.25 mg/g and 0.5 mg/g in the culture media, respectively	in vivo on Panax notoginseng
A. annua whole plant	ethanol extract	Aspergillus flavus	14 mm inhibition zone at 200 μg/mL	in vitro	^[22]
A. annua whole plant	ethanol extract	A. niger	14.5 mm inhibition zone at 200 μg/mL	in vitro	^[22]
A. annua	artemisinin	Aspergillus fumigatus	IC₅₀ = 125 µg/mL IC₉₀ = 250 µg/mL	in vitro	^[23]
A. arborescens	essential oil (chamazulene, camphor)	Rhizoctonia solani	47.2% inhibition at 12.5 µL/20 mL medium 100% inhibition at 50 µL/20 mL medium	in vitro	^[24]
A. argyi leaves	essential oil (caryophyllene oxide, neointermedeol, borneol, α-thujone, β-caryophyllene)	Aspergillus niger	MIC = 6.25 µL/mL	in vitro	^[25]
A. argyi inflorescence	essential oil (spathulenol, juniper camphor, caryophyllene oxide, terpineol, 1,8-cineole, borneol, camphor, chamazulene)	Alternaria alternata	84.7% inhibition at 1000 mg/L	in vitro	^[26]
A. argyi inflorescence		Botrytis cinerea	93.3% inhibition at 1000 mg/L	in vitro	^[26]
A. austriaca fresh aerial parts	essential oil (camphor)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. caerulescens ssp. densiflora	essential oil (terpinen-4-ol, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, 1,8-cyneole, α-terpineol)	Alternaria spp.	20 mm inhibition zone at 1:2 dilution	in vitro	^[27]
		Aspergillus spp.	12 mm inhibition zone at 1:1 dilution
		Fusarium spp.	16 mm inhibition zone at 1:8 dilution
A. campestris aerial parts	methanol extracts (1:10)	Aspergillus niger	32.5–33.1 mm inhibition zone at 20 µg/mL	in vitro	^[28]
A. campestris aerial parts	essential oil (α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, germacrene D)	Aspergillus flavus	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 2.5 μL/mL	in vitro	^[29]
		Aspergillus niger	MIC = 10 μL/mL MFC >20 μL/mL
		Aspergillus ochraceus	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 5 μL/mL
		Aspergillus parasiticus	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 5 μL/mL
		Fusarium culmorum	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 5 μL/mL
		Fusarium graminearum	MIC = 1.25 μL/mL MFC = 1.25 μL/mL
		Fusarium moniliforme	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 2.5 μL/mL
		Penicillium citrinum	MIC = 5 μL/mL MFC > 20 μL/mL
		Penicillium expansum	MIC = 2.5 μL/mL MFC = 2.5 μL/mL
		Penicillium viridicatum	MIC = 10 μL/mL MFC > 20 μL/mL
A. chamaemelifolia aerial parts	essential oil (carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene α-cadinol)	Aspergillus oryzae	MIC = 312.5 μg/mL MFC = 312.5 μg/mL	in vitro	^[30]
		Aspergillus niger	MIC = 2500 μg/mL MFC = 2500 μg/mL
		Byssochlamys spectabilis	MIC = 625 μg/mL MFC = 625 μg/mL
		Paecilomyces variotii	MIC = 625 μg/mL MFC = 625 μg/mL
		Penicillium chrysogenum	MIC = 625 μg/mL MFC = 625 μg/mL
		Trichoderma harizanum	MIC = 312.5 μg/mL MFC = 312.5 μg/mL
A. dracunculus fresh aerial parts	essential oil (sabinene)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. dracunculus var. pilosa fresh aerial parts	essential oil (borneol)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. herba-alba aerial parts	essential oil (davanone, camphor, thujone)	Fusarium moniliforme	MIC = 0.5%	in vitro direct contact	^[31]
		Fusarium oxysporum	MIC = 0.5%
		Fusarium solani	MIC = 0.75%
		Stemphylium solani	MIC = 0.75%
A. herba-alba leaves	essential oil (β-thujone, α-thujone camphor)	Penicillium aurantiogriseum	100% inhibition at 0.89%	in vitro	^[32]
A. herba-alba leaves	essential oil (β-thujone, α-thujone camphor)	P. viridicatum	100% inhibition at 1.33%	in vitro	^[32]
A. herba-alba fresh leaves	essential oil	Mucor rouxii	100% inhibition at 1000 µg/mL	in vitro	^[33]
	essential oil	Penicillium citrinum	100% inhibition at 1000 µg/mL
	carvone	Mucor rouxii	IC₅₀ = 7 µg/mL
	carvone	Penicillium citrinum	IC₅₀ = 5 µg/mL
	piperitone	Mucor rouxii	IC₅₀ = 1.5 µg/mL
	piperitone	Penicillium citrinum	IC₅₀ = 2 µg/mL
A. herba-alba aerial parts	chloroform-methanol extract	Fusarium solani	MIC = 62.5 μg/disc	in vitro	^[34]
A. herba-alba aerial parts	11-epiartapshin	Fusarium solani	MIC = 50 μg/disc	in vitro	^[34]
A. incisa aerial parts	santolinylol-3-acetate	Aspergillus flavus	MIC = 300 μg/mL	in vitro	^[35]
	santolinylol		MIC = 300 μg/mL
	trans-ethyl cinnamate		MIC = 500 μg/mL
	isofraxidin		MIC = 400 μg/mL
	eupatorin		MIC = 1000 μg/mL
	scopoletin		inactive
	esculetin		inactive
A. judaica aerial parts	essential oil (piperitone, 3-bornanone)	Aspergillus niger	MIC = 1.25 μg/disc	in vitro	^[36]
A. judaica aerial parts	essential oil (piperitone, 3-bornanone)	Fusarium solani	MIC = 2.5 μg/disc	in vitro	^[36]
A. khorasanica aerial parts	essential oil (davanone, p-cymene, Z-citral, β-ascaridol, thymol)	Fusarium moniliforme	MIC = 2000 µL/L	in vitro	^[37]
		Fusarium solani	MIC = 1500 µL/L
		Rhizoctonia solani	MIC = 1000 µL/L
		Tiarosporella phaseolina	MIC = 2000 µL/L
A. lavandulaefolia aerial parts	essential oil (eucalyptol, (-)-terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol)	Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 10.45 mg/mL	in vitro agar diffusion	^[20]
A. lavandulaefolia aerial parts	essential oil (eucalyptol, (-)-terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol)	Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 6.64 mg/mL	in vitro spore germination	^[20]
A. lerchiana fresh aerial parts	essential oil (eucalyptol)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. maritima aerial parts	essential oil (1,8-cineole, chrysanthenone, germacrene D, borneol)	Aspergillus flavus	35.4% inhibition at 10 µL/plate	in vitro	^[38]
		A. niger	60.6% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
		A. ochraceus	56.1% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
		A. parasiticus	32.45% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
		A. terreus	58.3% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
		Fusarium moniliforme	33.9% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
		Penicillium chrysogenum	28.6% inhibition at 10 µL/plate
A. nilagirica shoot	essential oil (camphor, β-caryophyllene, α-thujone, sabinene)	Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus	MIC = 0.29 μL/mL MFC = 0.58 μL/mL	in vitro	^[39]
		Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus	100% mycotoxin inhibition at 0.16 μL/mL	in vitro
		Aspergillus terreus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium oxysporum, Mucor mucedo, Penicillium expansum, P. funiculosum, Rhizopus stolonifer	100% inhibition at 0.29–0.58 μL/mL	in vitro
			0% disease incidence at 300 μL/2 L	in situ fumigation test on grapes, 10 days storage
A. nilagirica aerial parts	essential oil (1,5-heptadiene-4-one,3,3,6-trimethyl, artemisia alcohol, α-ionone, benzene, methyl (1-methylethyl))	Aspergillus flavus toxigenic strain	MIC = 1.4 µL/mL MFC = 4.0 µL/mL	in vitro	^[40]
		Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, A. minutus, A. niger, A. sydowii, A. terreus, Cheatomium spirale, Curvularia lunata, Mucor spp., Mycelia sterilia Penicillium italicum, P. purpurogenum, Rhizopus stolonifer,	70–100% inhibition at 1.4 µL/mL	in vitro
			71% protection from fungal contamination at 1.4 μL/mL in air	in situ on Eleusine coracana seeds, 12 months storage
A. nilagirica aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone, β-thujone, germacrene D, 4-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, camphene, borneol)	Macrophomina phaseolina	ED₅₀ = 93.23 mg/L	in vitro	^[41]
		Rhizoctonia solani	ED₅₀ = 85.75 mg/L
		Sclerotium rolfsii	ED₅₀ = 87.63 mg/L
A. nilagirica leaves	essential oil (α-thujone, borneol, β-thujone, 1,8-cineole)	Phytophthora capsici	100% inhibition at 100 ppm	in vitro	^[42]
A. pallens leaves	methanol extract 1:10	Sclerospora graminicola	Inhibition of zoosporangium formation	in vitro	^[43]
A. parviflora twigs	methanol extract 1:1	Sclerospora graminicola	Inhibition of zoosporangium formation	in vitro	^[43]
A. pontica fresh aerial parts	essential oil (eucalyptol)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. proceriformis fresh leaves	essential oil (α-thujone)	Aspergillus carbonarius	MIC = 10.6 mg/mL	in vitro	^[44]
		Aspergillus niger	MIC = 21.2 mg/mL
		Fusarium graminearum	MIC = 10.6 mg/mL
		F. verticillioides	MIC = 10.6 mg/mL
		Septoria glycines	MIC = 2.7 mg/mL
		Septoria tritici	MIC = 2.7 mg/mL
A. santonica fresh aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]
A. scoparia aerial parts	essential oil (acenaphthene, curcumene, (+) caryophyllene oxide, spathulenol, methyl eugenol, β-caryophyllene)	Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 12.2 mg/mL	in vitro agar diffusion	^[20]
A. scoparia aerial parts		Alternaria solani	EC₅₀ = 3.8 mg/mL	in vitro spore germination	^[20]
A. sieberi aerial parts	1R, 8S-dihydroxy- 11R,13-dihydrobalchanin	Fusarium solani	6 mm inhibition zone at 200 μg/10 μL	in vitro	^[45]
	11-epiartapshin		7 mm inhibition zone at 200 μg/10 μL
	3′-hydroxygenkwanin		8 mm inhibition zone at 200 μg/10 μL
A. sieberi aerial parts	essential oil (camphor, 1,8-cineole, camphene, chrysanthenone)	Botrytis cinerea	100% inhibition at 1000 µl/L	in vitro	^[46]
A. stricta f. stricta aerial parts	essential oil (capillene, spathulenol, β-caryophyllene)	Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Sporothrix schenckii	MIC = 0.625 mg/mL	in vitro	^[47]
A. terrae-albae leaves	camphor, 1,8-cineole, camphene, β-thujone	Aspergillus carbonarius	MIC > 1.20 mg/mL	in vitro	^[48]
		Aspergillus niger	MIC > 1.20 mg/mL
		Fusarium graminearum	MIC = 0.60–1.20 mg/mL
		Fusarium verticillioides	MIC = 0.60 mg/mL
A. turanica aerial parts	essential oil (1,8-cineol, cis-verbenyl acetate, camphor)	Aspergillus niger	68.6% inhibition at 1 μL/mL	in vitro	^[49]
A. vulgaris whole plant	crude methanol extract (1:10)	Botrytis cinerea	60% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Cucumis sativus	^[50]
		Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei	25% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Hordeum sativum
		Magnaporthe grisea	16% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Oryza sativa
		Phytophthora infestans	32% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Lycopersicon esculentum
		Puccinia recondita	52% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Triticum aestivum
		Thanatephorus cucumeris	9.3% inhibition at 2 mg/mL	in vivo on Oryza sativa
A. vulgaris leaves	methanol extract 1:1	Sclerospora graminicola	Inhibition of zoosporangium formation	in vitro	^[43]
A. vulgaris fresh aerial parts	essential oil (germacrene D)	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	MIC = 2400 μL/L	in vitro	^[17]

* To highlight the active compounds, the major constituents of the volatile oils were noted in parentheses.

The in vitro antifungal activity was frequently determined by the agar diffusion test, which involves placing the tested plant extract in wells or paper discs on the agar plate previously inoculated with the pathogen ^[24]^[25]. Since essential oils diffuse less in the culture medium, it was preferred to include them in agar after prior solubilization, followed by inoculation of the pathogen ^[20]^[31]^[42]. Moreover, for volatile compounds, the fumigation method was used ^[20]. In vivo antifungal evaluations involved treating the plants with the tested compounds/extracts by spraying them followed by inoculation with the fungal pathogen or by including the compounds in the soil and then planting the inoculated seedling in the treated soil. The disease severity was assessed after a period of infection ^[21]^[50]. In situ antifungal efficacy against postharvest pathogens was determined by fumigation in the case of stored foods ^[39]^[40].

The extraction method influences the antifungal activity of the volatile oil, as can be seen from the investigation carried out by Julio et al. ^[18]: A. absinthium oil obtained by steam pressure extraction was more effective in inhibiting mycelium growth than that obtained by hydrodistillation, which was due to a different ratio of the major volatile compounds. Similarly, A. argyi essential oil obtained by simultaneous distillation–extraction had a higher antifungal activity compared to oils prepared by subcritical extraction or hydrodistillation. Although regardless of the extraction method, the oils had the same five major compounds, in the oil obtained by simultaneous distillation–extraction, the sesquiterpene compounds predominated ^[25]. Conversely, in the case of A. chamaemelifolia essential oil, the method of extraction—microwave-assisted hydrodistillation and classical hydrodistillation—had no influence on the inhibitory effect against the tested fungi. Both oils contained the same major compounds in comparable ratio ^[30].

The type of extract, the part of the plant used, and the time of harvest also influence the antifungal activity, as underlined in a study carried out with methanol, ethanol, and hexane extracts of Artemisia annua against Aspergillus niger and A. flavus. Whole plant extract was the most efficient in inhibiting the growth of the two fungi, regardless of the type of extract, compared to root, leaf, or stem extracts. Regarding the extraction solvent, ethanol extract had the highest inhibitory effect, followed by methanol and hexane, on both fungal species. Although the harvesting period of the plant had little influence on the antifungal activity, most of the extracts made with the plant collected during anthesis were more active ^[22].

From analyzing literature data, it appears that sesquiterpenes components of the oil have significant antifungal activity. Oxygenated sesquiterpenes were the major components of A. khorasanica volatile oil active against four soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi ^[37]. Artemisia scoparia essential oil, rich in sesquiterpenes, was more efficient in inhibiting mycelial growth and spore germination of Alternaria solani compared to A. lavandulaefolia and, especially, A. annua oils, where monoterpenes were the major compounds. Furthermore, the mode of volatile oil administration influences the outcome: A. lavandulaefolia oil was more effective when applied by fumigation than when mixed in the agar medium ^[20].

Alongside the sesquiterpenes, it seems that thujones present in high amounts in the volatile oil are associated with intense antifungal activity ^[32]^[42]. To prove this point, Shafi et al. ^[42] used a mixture of thujones (α-thujone, β-thujone, and fenchone) at the same concentration instead of A. nilagirica oil to achieve the same result against Phytophthora capsici—100% inhibition. Borneol was also tested in the aforementioned study and showed no antifungal activity. On the other hand, the antifungal property of A. terrae-albae essential oil against Fusarium spp. was associated with the presence of camphor, 1,8-cineole, camphene, α- and β-thujone, borneol, and the high content of oxygenated monoterpenes ^[48]. Other oxygenated monoterpenes, piperitone and carvone, were correlated with the antifungal activity on Penicillium citrinum and Mucor rouxii; the two ketones are major components of A. herba-alba volatile oil ^[33].

Some volatile compounds (L-camphor; DL-camphor, β-caryophyllene, and camphene) from A. annua oil were as efficient as synthetic antifungal products such as flutriafol and hymexazol against Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani, in vitro ^[21]. Different compounds isolated from the methanol extract of A. incisa were tested against Aspergillus flavus with various results: two monoterpenes and one phenolic acid derivative were more active compared to flavones and coumarins, the latter being less active ^[35].

Moreover, the synergistic action of essential oils and chemical fungicides was evaluated. Thus, A. annua essential oil combined with flutriafol exhibits additive inhibitory effect against Fusarium solani, while with hymexazol, it manifests synergistic activity on F. solani and additive action on F. oxysporum ^[21].

Most Artemisia extracts were tested on Fusarium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species. Fungi have different susceptibility to varied antifungal compounds: for example, Fusarium solani was moderately sensitive to the action of isolated substances from A. sieberi (two sesquiterpene lactones and one methoxylated flavone), while Alternaria alternata and Aspergillus niger were resistant ^[45]. In an analogous manner, Aspergillus niger was sensitive to the methanol extract of A. campestris and resistant to A. vulgaris extract, despite similar quantities of flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Quercetin was reported in higher amounts in A. campestris extract and seems to be correlated with antifungal activity ^[28].

Few studies assessed the antifungal activity in vivo. Ma et al. ^[21] showed that the petroleum ether extract of A. annua, imitating the composition of the essential oil, decreased the incidence of infected Panax notoginseng plants when added in the culture mixture. A. vulgaris crude methanol extract exhibited weak to moderate antifungal activity against Magnaporthe grisea, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Botrytis cinerea, Phytophthora infestans, Puccinia recondite, and Blumeria graminis when tested on plants grown in greenhouse conditions ^[50].

Stored foods can be degraded by fungi such as Alternaria spp., Penicillium spp., and Mucor spp., which reduce their quality and make them unsuitable or even toxic for consumption. The use of chemical products for the control of postharvest pathogens endangers the environment, human health, and can induce resistance to fungicides. Such being the case, some investigations tried to estimate the reduction of postharvest fungal spoilage after treatment with Artemisia extracts. Fumigation of table grapes with A. nilagirica essential oil (200–300 µL) decreased the weight loss, berry shrinkage, and berry browning, increasing the shelf life for up to 10 days ^[39]. In addition, A. nilagirica volatile oil at a concentration of 1.4 μL/mL in airtight containers provided 71% protection from fungal contamination after 12 months of storage to millet grains ^[40].

In addition to the direct inhibition of postharvest phytopathogenic fungi, some studies also evaluated the mycotoxins suppression ability of plant extracts. For instance, Artemisia herba-alba keto-rich essential oil completely inhibited the toxin production (penicillic acid, terrestric acid, brevianamide A, aurantiamine, xanthomegnin) for P. aurantiogriseum at 0.44% and for P. viridicatum at 0.22% ^[32]. Similarly, Artemisia nilagirica essential oil inhibited the production of aflatoxin B₁ by Aspergillus flavus toxigenic strain at 1 µL/mL. A common seed contaminant, aflatoxin B1 is a powerful human carcinogen and a serious health risk; it also contributes to food deterioration by lipid peroxidation ^[40]. In another experiment, A. nilagirica volatile oil (0.16 µL/mL) completely inhibited the production of aflatoxin B₁ by Aspergillus flavus and ochratoxin A by A. niger and A. ochraceus ^[39].

The phytocompounds mechanism of action against fungi involves the inhibition of enzymes that control energy or structural compounds production, degeneration of fungal cell wall with loss of cytoplasm, and plasma membrane dysfunction. Due to their lipophilic nature, components of essential oils can penetrate cell walls, increase cellular membranes permeability and disturb the fungal cells metabolism, causing their death ^[11]. Monoterpenes delay sclerotic differentiation and promote the generation of lipid peroxides, which can lead to cell death, while phenols present in the essential oil bond to the active sites of fungal enzymes through their hydroxyl group ^[51]

In addition, spore germination and germ tube growth are negatively influenced by terpenes from the essential oil. A. annua volatile oil arrested mycelia growth and conidia germination of Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani ^[21]. Electron microscope observations proved that A. argyi essential oil affected the cell morphology and the structure of cell walls in Aspergillus niger ^[25]. An earlier study showed that Artemisia herba-alba essential oil inhibited mycelium growth, spore germination, and sporulation of Zygorrhynchus spp., Aspergillus niger and Penicillium italicum ^[52].

The antifungal mode of action of A. nilagirica essential oil was investigated by Kumar et al. The fungal cells treated with 1.4 μL/mL volatile oil exhibited important deformity and shrinkage, detachment of plasma membrane from the cell wall, and development of lomasomes. At the same dose, A. nilagirica essential oil completely inhibited ergosterol synthesis in the cell membrane of Aspergillus flavus and provoked the leakage of Ca²⁺, K⁺, and Mg²⁺ ions from the cell ^[40].

It is worth mentioning that in addition to the secondary antifungal metabolites produced by plants, certain endophytic organisms present in Artemisia species are able to inhibit the development of phytopathogenic fungi. Thus, in the root, stem, and leaves of A. argyi, researchers identified endophytes (Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, Paenibacillus polymyxa) that produce substances capable of inhibiting the growth of the mycelium of Fusarium oxysporum, Magnaporthe grisea, and Alternaria alternata ^[53].

2.2. Antibacterial Activity

Only a small number of studies investigated the effect of Artemisia spp. extracts on phytopathogenic bacteria. For instance, different A. nilagirica leaves extracts were tested in vitro against four phytopathogenic bacteria, Erwinia spp., Clavibacter michiganense, Pseudomonas syringae, and Xanthomonas campestris, which cause diseases in potato, tomato, leafy greens, carrot, onion, and green pepper. The hexane extract was the most efficient in inhibiting all tested bacteria with MIC of 32 µg/mL. The ethanol, methanol, diethyl ether, and chloroform extracts were moderately active against the four bacteria, while the petroleum ether extract was the least effective ^[54]. Methanol, ethanol, and chloroform extracts from leaves of Artemisia parviflora (1:6 w/v) were almost ineffective against Xanthomonas vesicatoria and Ralstonia solanacearum, with inhibition zones of 1 and 2 mm ^[55].

The essential oil of Artemisia turanica exhibited inhibitory activity at 2% (v/v) concentration against tumor galls induced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens on potato discs, but it did not demonstrate antibacterial activity in vitro against A. tumefaciens at the same dose ^[49]. In addition, the methanol extracts of roots, leaves, and flowers of Artemisia fragrans inhibited tumor growth in different percentages at 10, 100, and 1000 ppm. Leaves and flowers extract had the highest inhibition at all concentration (20, 38, 46%) compared to root extract (15, 24, 34%). No extract had any significant effect on the viability of A. tumefaciens when tested by agar diffusion assay ^[56].

Dadasoglu et al. ^[57] evaluated the antibacterial activities of essential oils, hexane, chloroform, acetone, and methanol extracts from the aerial parts of A. santonicum, A. spicigera, and A. absinthium against 25 plant pathogenic bacterial strains. A. spicigera essential oil was only active (MIC = 500 μL/mL) against Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria. The volatile oil of A. absinthium exhibited moderate activity (MIC = 250–500 μL/mL) against most of the phytopathogenic bacteria. A. santonicum essential oil was the most effective with MIC values 125–250 μL/mL on 22 out of 25 bacteria tested, with the exception of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. cichorii, and Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis. None of the Artemisia solvent extracts manifested antibacterial activity on the tested strains. The main constituents of A. absinthium oil were chamazulene, nuciferol butanoate, nuciferol propionate, and caryophyllene oxide, while A. santonicum and A. spicigera oil shared similar major components: camphor, 1,8-cineole, cubenol, borneol, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol.

In the previously mentioned study, some constituents isolated from the essential oils were evaluated individually for their antibacterial activity. Caryophyllene oxide, camphor, borneol, and 1,8-cineole did not show activity against the phytopathogenic bacteria. Terpinen-4-ol inhibited the growth of all tested bacteria with MIC values ranging from 60 to 110 μL/mL and linalool blocked the development of 22 bacterial strains with MIC values in the 50–110 μL/mL domain. α-Terpineol was active (MIC = 60–70 μL/mL) only on Pseudomonas cichorii, P. huttiensis, P. syringae pv. syringae, and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria ^[57].

The essential oil extracted from fresh leaves of Artemisia proceriformis manifested weak antimicrobial activity against four bacteria: Erwinia carotovora (MIC = 21.2 mg/mL), Pseudomonas corrugate (MIC = 21.2 mg/mL), Pseudomonas syringae (MIC = 5.31 mg/mL), and Xanthomonas vesicatoria (MIC > 42.5 mg/mL). The major component was α-thujone, in proportion of 66.9% ^[44].

Terpenes and phenolic compounds found in the essential oils are responsible for the intense antimicrobial activity. Terpenes have the ability to increase membrane permeability by infiltrating the phospholipidic bilayer; the damage to the bacterial membrane causes the loss of cytoplasmic components, which leads to cell death. Plant extracts are studied not only as inhibitors of bacterial growth, but also for the prevention of biofilm formation. Such is the case of A. herba-alba, A. absinthium, and A. campestris essential oils that can reduce biofilm formation by up to 70% ^[58].

2.3. Insecticidal Activity

Insects are the more diverse group of animals on Earth, and only 0.5% are considered pests. Nonetheless, herbivorous insects destroy every year one-fifth of the world’s crop production. Synthetic chemicals used to control insect pests are toxic to humans, animals, and the environment through accumulation. In addition, the development of insecticide resistance and the migration of harmful insects require the search for an alternative for plant protection. Considering these facts, botanical insecticides represent a viable substitute with low toxicity toward humans and the environment ^[59].

Plant-derived substances or plant extracts usually have a lower acute toxicity toward insects compared to synthetic insecticides. Nevertheless, their subacute toxicity was frequently noted and is important because it can limit insect spreading (diminished fertility, fecundity, vitality, or shorter lifespan) and decrease crop loss due to repellent, suppressant, or deterrent activity. These effects are generally called “antifeedant” and are manifested in insects by lower weight and body size, decreased fertility, and altered behavior ^[60].

Artemisia compounds can influence insects by direct contact or fumigation, can repel insects or keep them from feeding, or can hinder their reproduction. Volatile compounds can induce toxicity to insects via inhalation or direct contact by forming an impermeable film on the cuticle leading to suffocation. Some volatile components can penetrate through the cuticle, affecting cellular membrane function and oxidative phosphorylation ^[61]. Phytochemicals such as cinnamyl alcohol, eugenol, and trans-anethole can activate octopamine receptors, interfering with the normal activity of octopamine, a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, and neurohormone in an invertebrate system ^[62]. Furthermore, volatile compounds can interfere with the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor in insects ^[14]. Other studies reported the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by 1,8-cineole, (-)-citronellal, limonene, α-pinene, pulegone, and 4-terpineol ^[63] or inhibition of adenosinetriphosphatase by essential oils ^[64]. In addition, plant substances may cause the suppression of cytochrome P450 in insects (the enzymes responsible for phase I metabolism of xenobiotics) and may alter various biochemical processes, which shift the balance of the endocrine system ^[14].

The activity of Artemisia compounds and extracts depends on the solvent used, the susceptibility of pest species to the active substance, the development stage of the insect, whether it is male or female, and the method of application. Table 2 lists the more recent studies on insecticidal activity of Artemisia genus. Essential oils and volatile compounds can be applied via fumigation, which is a procedure used frequently in the pest management of stored products. This method has obvious advantages such as the possibility to spread the substance evenly, even in unreachable places, and the ability to maintain an effective level of insecticides within a closed space ^[60]. Some of the shortcomings of natural insecticides are poor water solubility and rapid degradation in the environment, leading to low persistence and poor efficiency. To solve these problems, plant insecticides may be formulated as micro- and nanocapsules, nanoparticles, or nanoemulsions. These nanoformulations can increase the solubility, persistence, and stability of bioinsecticides, enhancing their activity and, at the same time, limiting their negative impact on the environment ^[65].

Table 2. Insecticidal activity of Artemisia compounds and extracts.

Artemisia spp.	Extract or Compound Tested	Target Species	Reference
A. absinthium	essential oil	Leptinotarsa decemlineata Myzus persicae Rhopalosiphum padi Spodoptera littoralis	^[18]
	essential oil	Trialeurodes vaporariorum Tuta absoluta	^[66]
	essential oil	Tetranychus cinnabarinus	^[67]
	essential oil	Diaphania hyalinata	^[68]
	methanol extract	Sitophilus oryzae	^[69]
	essential oil	Orysaephilus surinamensis Tribolium castaneum	^[70]
	powdered plant	Oryzaephilus surinamensis	^[71]
	water extract ethanol extract	Hyphantria cunea	^[72]
	supercritical extracts	Spodoptera littoralis	^[73]
	essential oil	Myzus persicae	^[74]
	essential oil carvacrol (−)-α-bisabolol chamazulene	Diaphorina citri	^[75]
A. annua	methanol extract essential oil	Helicoverpa armigera	^[76]
	methanol extract artemisinic acid artemisinin scopoletin arteannuin-B deoxy-artemisinin artemetin casticin chrysosplenetin	Helicoverpa armigera	^[77]
	essential oil	Glyphodes pyloalis	^[78]
	methanol extract	Pieris rapae	^[79]
	methanol extract	Hyphantria cunea	^[80]
	methanol extract	Glyphodes pyloalis	^[81]
	essential oil	Diaphania hyalinata	^[68]
A. arborescens	essential oil	Rhysopertha dominica	^[24]
A. argyi	ethanol extract	Brevicoryne brassicae	^[82]
	essential oil	Diaphania hyalinata	^[68]
	water extract ethanol extract	Hyphantria cunea	^[72]
	essential oil	Plodia interpunctella	^[83]
A. frigida	essential oil	Liposcelis bostrychophila Sitophilus zeamais	^[84]
A. frigida	essential oil terpinen-4-ol verbenone camphene α-terpineol α-terpinyl acetate	Lasioderma serricorne Liposcelis bostrychophila Tribolium castaneum	^[85]
A. herba-alba	essential oil	Orysaephilus surinamensis Tribolium castaneum	^[70]
A. judaica	essential oil	Sitophilus orizae	^[64]
A. lavandulaefolia	essential oil 1,8-cineole chamazulene β-caryophyllene	Lasioderma serricorne	^[86]
A. monosperma	essential oil	Sitophilus orizae	^[64]
A. monosperma	essential oil	Aphis nerii	^[87]
A. nilagirica	cow urine extract	Scirpophaga incertulas	^[88]
A. spicigera	essential oil	Dendroctonus micans	^[89]
A. vulgaris	essential oil	Callosobruchus maculatus Rhyzopertha dominica Tribolium castaneum	^[90]
	essential oil	Diaphania hyalinata	^[68]
	water extract ethanol extract	Hyphantria cunea	^[72]

2.4. Nematicidal Activity

Plant parasitic nematodes cause severe yield losses in different crops, especially in tropics and subtropics. Frequent nematodes that affect plants include Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes), Pratylenchus (lesion nematodes), Xiphinema (dagger nematodes), Aphelenchoides (foliar nematodes), Globodera (potato cyst nematodes), and Heterodera (soybean cyst nematodes). Meloidogyne species induce histological damages to roots, with the appearance of visible galls. Some phytoparasitic nematodes act as vectors for plant viruses, such as Xiphinema species ^[91].

Various Artemisia species were evaluated for nematicidal activity, some with promising results. For instance, A. judaica essential oil (1 μL/L) caused 85% mortality on Meloidogyne javanica second-stage juveniles and inhibited the hatching of eggs. The main component of the essential oil was artemisia ketone. In the same study, A. arborescens and A. dracunculus essential oils were poorly active on the root-knot nematode ^[92]. In vitro toxicity of Artemisia annua essential oil was evaluated against second-stage juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita and pre-adults of Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform nematode). Concentrations of 500 and 250 ppm induced 100% mortality in both nematode species ^[93]. Moreover, there are reports of nematicidal activity exhibited by the alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Artemisia annua against Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus loosi (tea root lesion nematode) ^[91].

Artemisia herba-alba essential oil produced 94.4% mortality on Meloidogyne incognita second-stage juveniles at 15 µg/mL and 100% mortality on Xiphinema index females at 2 µg/mL, after 24 h exposure. However, mixed-age infective specimens of Pratylenchus vulnus were more resistant to the activity of A. herba-alba essential oil with mortality values ranging from 56.8% to 67% after 24 to 96 h of exposure. The major components of the essential oil were cis- and trans-thujone, camphor, 1,8-cineole, trans-chrysantenyl acetate, and camphene. In an additional test, the three nematode species were exposed to various compounds of the essential oils of four plants, including A. herba-alba. Borneol and α-pinene manifested poor to moderate activity, while limonene lack activity on the three nematode species. Camphor exhibited a moderate nematicidal effect, whilst thymol and thujone (mixture of cis-thujone, 70% and trans-thuione) displayed strong activity against M. incognita, and less so on P. vulnus and X. index. The fact that the activity of the components of the volatile oil is weaker than that of the whole oil suggests a possible synergistic action of the mixture. In addition, soil treatments with 100 or 200 µg/kg A. herba-alba essential oil, by fumigation or application of water solution, significantly inhibited nematode density on tomato roots and in soil and also increased the plant biomass. Fumigation was proven to be more effective than drenching treatment ^[94].

A. absinthium essential oil (β-thujone 51% and linalyl acetate 24%) had over 99% mortality rate at 0.25 and 0.5% concentrations (v/v) against Meloidogyne javanica juveniles in an in vitro test. Furthermore, in vivo experiments were conducted in order to assess the ability of the essential oil to inhibit root-knot nematode development after being absorbed by the tomato plants. It was observed that spraying the oil on tomato leaves actually increased the number of galls and eggs in treated plants, and applying the essential oil into the soil at 0.25% and 0.5% concentrations did not lower the number of galls or nematode eggs in tomato plants. The authors believe that the nematicidal compounds could have been volatilized or degraded by microorganisms in the soil or by the plant, or possibly, the root exudates were modified by the absorbed essential oil, making the tomato plants more appealing to the nematodes ^[95]. In another study, commercially available A. absinthium volatile oil had only a slight effect on Meloidogyne javanica in vitro (the median lethal dose LC₅₀ of 937 µg/mL at 48 h and 734 µg/mL at 72 h). The major components of the oil were borneol acetate, β-terpineol, 1,8-cineol, linalool, sabinene, and o-cymene ^[96].

The nematicidal activity of Artemisia absinthium hydrolate, a by-product of essential oil extraction, was evaluated on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica. The hydrolate caused high mortality of second-stage juvenile and suppression of egg hatching, proving the ability of the A. absinthium hydrolate to penetrate the gelatinous matrix of eggs. In vivo tests showed a strong inhibition of juveniles’ penetration in the tomato roots. Soil treatment with A. absinthium hydrolate (60% and 20% concentrations) significantly reduced the reproductive capacity of root-knot nematode and the infection frequency. The main component of the hydrolate, responsible for the nematicidal activity, was identified as (5Z)-2,6-dimethylocta-5,7-dien-2,3-diol ^[97].

Kalaiselvi et al. ^[98] showed that essential oils of A. nilagirica plants collected from high and low altitude have different composition and different nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita (LC_50/48h of 5.75 and 10.23 μg/mL, respectively). α-thujone, α-myrcene, and linalyl isovalerate were the main components of high-altitude A. nilagirica volatile oil, while the low-altitude plants produced an oil composed mostly of camphor, caryophyllene oxide, eucalyptol, humulene epoxide II, α-humulene, and β-caryophyllene. Experiments carried out in vivo by soil irrigation with the essential oil revealed that both volatile oils significantly reduced the infection of tomato plant (number of nematode juveniles and eggs) and enhanced plant growth (fresh weight of aerial parts and roots) at 20 µg/mL. Again, the effect was greater for the oil originated from high-altitude A. nilagirica. Moreover, the ethanol extract of flowering parts of A. nilagirica (1 mg/mL) exhibited nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita, as reported by an earlier study ^[99].

Various hypotheses have been advanced as explanations for the nematicidal effects of essential oils: disruption of cell membrane permeability and obstruction of its functions, irreversible modifications of proteins structures from the nematode surface induced by aldehydes, inhibition of acetylcholinesterase with build-up of neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of the nematode followed by convulsion, paralysis, and death ^[11]. Research on A. nilagirica essential oil ascribe the nematicidal action to an increased generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species, activation of signaling pathway of apoptosis, and DNA damage prompting cell death ^[98].

In addition to the essential oils and their volatile compounds, few other substances from Artemisia genus have been tested for their activity against plant nematodes. Thirteen chemical compounds (apigenin, bonanzin, nepetin, dihydroluteolin, scopoletin, isoscopoletin, benzoic acid, β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol, betulinic acid, friedelin, linoleic acid, and a long chain ketone) isolated from Artemisia elegantissima and Artemisia incisa were tested in vitro and in vivo for nematicidal activity against M. incognita. All phytochemicals significantly inhibited egg hatching and induced high mortality of second-stage juveniles at the tested concentrations (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mg/mL). Isoscopoletin was even more effective than the positive control carbofuran. In addition, application of the compounds as a root drench (0.1 mg/mL) on potted tomato plants caused a marked reduction of galls, galling index, and egg masses on plant roots, numbers of juveniles in the rhizosphere soil, and also improved tomato plant growth parameters (shoot and root length and weight). Isoscopoletin and apigenin were the most active compounds ^[100].

2.5. Herbicidal Activity

One of the most influential groups of plant secondary metabolites is the allelochemicals. They are released into the environment in order to affect the germination, growth, behavior, survival, and reproduction of competing plants, which is a process better known as allelopathy. They are produced mainly in the plant’s roots, seeds, flowers, and leaves, and their synthesis depends on the changes of the climate conditions as well as exposure to biotic or abiotic stress. Allelochemicals activity can be harmful or beneficial for the growth and survival of target species ^[101]. The destructive effect of allelochemicals is crucial for defending plants against herbivores and providing an advantage in the competition for resources ^[102]. In agroecosystems, allelopathy can influence weed management, and plant allelochemicals could be employed as bioherbicides in order to reduce the negative impact of chemical herbicides on the environment ^[103].

The allelopathic properties of Artemisia species are well known ^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109]^[110], so it was expected that numerous studies would investigate their herbicide potential on various weeds. Most researchers focused on the volatile oils, and only a few dealt with aqueous or alcoholic extracts (Table 3). The phytotoxic effect of essential oils is owed to multiple mechanisms of action: inhibition of cell division, decrease of mitochondrial respiration, reduction of photosynthetic pigments and photosynthesis, generation of radical oxygen species in excess and oxidative impairment, destruction of waxy cuticular layer, inhibition of enzymes activity, water uptake, and alteration of gibberellic acid content ^[102]^[111]^[112]. Most of these actions are correlated with the presence of oxygenated monoterpenes. For example,1,8-cineole and camphor inhibit DNA synthesis, cell proliferation, and elongation ^[113].

Table 3. Phytotoxic activity of Artemisia compounds and extracts.

Artemisia Species	Extract * or Compound Tested	Weed/Target Plant	Observed Effect	Reference
A. absinthium aerial parts	essential oil (cis-epoxyocimene, (−)-cis-chrysanthenol, chrysanthenyl acetate, linalool and β-caryophyllene)	Lolium perene	Suppression of root and leaf growth No effect on seed germination	^[18]
A. absinthium aerial parts		Lactuca sativa	Suppression of root and leaf growth No effect on seed germination	^[18]
A. absinthium fresh aerial parts	essential oil (β-thujone, chamazulene)	Sinapis arvensis	Complete inhibition of seed germination and seedling growth at 2 µL/mL	^[114]
A. absinthium leaves	aqueous extract 1:10 w/v	Parthenium hysterophorus	Inhibition of seed germination, shoot and root growth, reduction of chlorophyll and carotenoid content, at 25, 50, 75, and 100% Enhanced malondialdehyde levels, phenolic content and increased activity of antioxidative enzymes, at 25, 50, 75, and 100%	^[105]
A. absinthium shoot and root	aqueous extract	Chenopodium album	Decreases growth criteria (root and shoot length and fresh weight, number of leaves) at 1–100 mg/mL No effect on seed germination Increased peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity in root	^[115]
A. afra leaves	aqueous extract	Triticum aestivum	No effect on seed germination	^[116]
		Brassica napus	Complete inhibition of seed germination
		Medicago sativa	Increased germination rate
		resistant and non-resistant Lolium spp.	Significant inhibition of seed germination
A. annua flower heads	essential oil (1,8-cineole, trans-sabinyl acetate, artemisia ketone, camphor α-pinene)	Amaranthus retroflexus	In vitro, complete inhibition of seed germination, at 10 and 100 µg/L In vivo, plant death, at the cotyledon stage (100 mg/L) and true leaf stage (1000 mg/L)	^[117]
A. annua flower heads		Setaria viridis	In vitro, complete inhibition of seed germination, at 100 µg/L In vivo, plant death, at the cotyledon stage (100 mg/L) and true leaf stage (1000 mg/L)	^[117]
A. annua aerial parts	artemisinin arteannuin B artemisinic acid	Secale cereale, Hordeum vulgare, Artemisia annua, Portulaca oleracea, Amaranthus blitun, Lactuca sativa, Raphanus sativus	Inhibition of seed germination Inhibition of shoot and root growth	^[118]
A. annua	artemisinin	Lactuca sativa	Inhibition of root and shoot elongation, reduced cell division and cell viability in root tips, at 10 µM Reduced chlorophyll a and b levels Increased malondialdehyde and proline levels, at 1 µM	^[119]
A. annua	artemisinin	Arabidopsis thaliana	Reduction of fresh biomass, chlorophyll a, b, and leaf mineral contents at 40–160 μM Reduction of photosynthetic efficiency, yield, and electron transport rate, calcium and nitrogen levels at 80 and 160 μM Elevated lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde contents) at 80 and 160 μM	^[120]
A. arborescens shoot	sesamin ashantin	Agrostis stolonifera, Lactuca sativa	Growth inhibition at 1 mg/mL	^[107]
	sesamin	Lemna paucicostata	Growth inhibition IC₅₀ = 401 μM
	ashantin	Lemna paucicostata	Growth inhibition IC₅₀ = 224 μM
A. arborescens leaf litter	crude methanol extract	Lactuca sativa, Raphanus sativus, Amaranthus retroflexus, Cynodon dactylon	Inhibition of seed germination ED₅₀ = 1.61–3.05 mg/mL Inhibition of root growth ED₅₀ = 1.22–3.14 mg/mL	^[121]
A. arborescens leaf litter	hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate fractions		Inhibition of seed germination ED₅₀ = 1.19–6.25 mg/mL Inhibition of root growth ED₅₀ = 0.92–3.98 mg/mL	^[121]
A. arborescens aerial part	crude methanol and aqueous extracts	Lactuca sativa	Inhibition of seed germination and root growth ED₅₀ = 0.5–2.8 mg/mL	^[122]
A. arborescens aerial part	ethyl acetate, n-hexane, chloroform, n-butanol fractions	Lactuca sativa	Inhibition of seed germination and root growth ED₅₀ = 0.4–5.4 mg/mL	^[122]
A. argyi leaves	water extract (caffeic acid, schaftoside, 4-caffeoylquinic acid, 5-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and 3-caffeoylquinic acid)	Brassica pekinensis, Lactuca sativa, Oryza sativa	Inhibition of germination, root and stem growth, and biomass (at 50, 100, and 150 ng/mL)	^[108]
A. argyi leaves		Brassica pekinensis, Lactuca sativa, Oryza sativa, Portulaca oleracea, Oxalis corniculata, Setaria viridis	Inhibition of germination and growth in pot experiment (A. argyi powder mixed into sand soil at the ratio 100:0, 100:2, 100:4, and 100:8)	^[108]
A. campestris leaves	essential oil (β-pinene, 1, 8-cineole, p-cymene, myrcene)	Daucus carota, Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Triticum sativum	Reduces seed germination at 1000–2000 ppm Enhances seed germination at 100 ppm Delays the germination of D. carota seeds	^[123]
A. dracunculus aerial parts	essential oil	Medicago minima, Rumex crispus, Taraxacum officinale	No effect on seed germination at 0.3–1.2 mg/L	^[124]
A. dracunculus	leachate	Lactuca sativa	Radicle growth inhibition	^[125]
A. fragrans aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone, camphor, 1,8-cineole, β-thujone)	Convolvulus arvensis	Important reduction in the shoot, root, and plant length, shoot and root fresh weight, shoot and root dry weight Inhibited seed germination Significant decrease of photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant enzymes Increased production of H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde content, and membrane leakage	^[126]
A. fragrans roots, leaves, and flowers	methanol extracts	Raphanus raphanistrum	Inhibition of root growth at 1000 ppm Inhibition of seed germination at 7500 ppm	^[56]
A. frigida	volatile organic compounds (1,8-cineole, camphene, (E)-3-hexen-1-ol acetate, α-terpineol, β-terpineol)	Melitotus suaveolens, Sorghum sudanense, Elymus dahuricus, Agropyron cristatum	Significantly decreases the seed germination and seedling growth	^[127]
A. judaica aerial parts	essential oil (piperitone, 3-bornanone)	Lactuca sativa	Reduced seed germination, shoot and root growth at 250–1000 µL/L	^[36]
A. lavandulaefolia leaves	aqueous extract	Lactuca sativa, Artemisia princeps, Achyranthes japonica, Oenothera odorata, Plantago asiatica, Aster yomena, Elsholzia ciliata, Raphanus sativus	Inhibition of root growth Inhibition of seed germination	^[128]
A. lavandulaefolia leaves	essential oil (1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, α-terpinene, camphor, azulene, 2-buten-1-ol)		Inhibition of root growth Inhibition of seed germination	^[128]
A. monosperma aerial parts	aqueous extract	Phaseolus vulgaris	Stimulation of seed germination at 1% and 2% concentration Inhibition of seed germination at 3% and 4% concentration Inhibition of amylase and protease activity	^[129]
A. monosperma aerial parts	aqueous extract	Medicago polymorpha	Reduction of germination percentage, plumule and radicle growth, and seedling dry weight	^[130]
A. monosperma aerial parts	crude plant powder mixed with clay loam soil	Medicago polymorpha	Inhibitory effects on leaf area index, total photosynthetic pigments, total available carbohydrates and total protein, in pot culture bioassay	^[130]
A. scoparia fresh leaves	essential oil (β-myrcene, (+)-limonene, (Z)-β-ocimene, γ-terpinene)	Avena fatua, Cyperus rotundus, Phalaris minor	Important reduction in germination, seedling growth, and dry matter at 0.07–0.7 mg/mL	^[131]
A. scoparia fresh leaves	essential oil (p-cymene, β-myrcene, (+)-limonene)	Achyranthes aspera, Cassia occidentalis, Parthenium hysterophorus, Echinochloa crus-galli, Ageratum conyzoides	Inhibition of seed germination, root and shoot growth at 10, 25, and 50 µg oil/g sand Chlorosis, necrosis and complete wilting of plants 1 to 7-days after spraying with oil (2%, 4%, and 6%, v/v) Significant decline in chlorophyll content and cellular respiration, electrolyte leakage	^[132]
A. sieversiana fresh aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone, eucalyptol)	Amaranthus retroflexus, Medicago sativa, Poa annua, Pennisetum alopecuroides	Inhibition of root and shoot growth IC₅₀ = 1.89–4.69 mg/mL	^[133]
	α-thujone		IC₅₀ = 1.55–6.21 mg/mL
	eucalyptol		IC₅₀ = 1.42–17.81 mg/mL
	α-thujone and eucalyptol mixture		IC₅₀ = 0.23–1.05 mg/mL
A. terrae-albae aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone, β- thujone, eucalyptol, camphor)	Amaranthus retroflexus	Reduces root and shoot growth at 1.5 μg/mL Completely inhibits seed germination at 3 μg/mL	^[134]
A. terrae-albae aerial parts	essential oil (α-thujone, β- thujone, eucalyptol, camphor)	Poa annua	Reduces root and shoot growth at 1.5 μg/mL Completely inhibits seed germination at 5 μg/mL	^[134]
A. verlotiorum flower heads	essential oil (chrysanthenone, 1,8-cineole, β-pinene, camphor 2,6-dimethyl phenol, β-caryophyllene)	Amaranthus retroflexus	In vitro, complete inhibition of seed germination, at 10 and 100 µg/L In vivo, plant death, at the cotyledon stage (100 mg/L) and true leaf stage (1000 mg/L)	^[117]
A. verlotiorum flower heads		Setaria viridis	In vitro, inhibition of seed germination, at 10 and 100 µg/L In vivo, plant death, at the cotyledon stage (1000 mg/L) and true leaf stage (1000 mg/L)	^[117]
A. vulgaris aerial parts	aqueous extract	Amaranthus retroflexus	Inhibition of seed germination, radicle, and hypocotyl length at 7.5% to 10% w/v, in Petri dish bioassays Inhibition of seedling emergence and plant growth, in pot culture bioassays	^[104]
A. vulgaris aerial parts	aqueous extract	Zea mays	Stimulation of radicle and mesocotyl growth at 7.5% to 10% w/v, in Petri dish bioassays Stimulation of plant biomass, in pot culture bioassays	^[104]
A. vulgaris leaves and flowers	essential oil	Agrostemma githago, Amaranthus retroflexus, Cardaria draba, Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crus-galli, Reseda lutea, Rumex crispus, Trifolium pratense	Inhibition of root and shoot growth and reduction of germination rate (at 2, 5, 10 and 20 μL/plate)	^[135]
A. vulgaris root	aqueous extracts	Triticum aestivum (winter wheat)	Inhibition of shoot and root growth by all concentrations (1:6250 to 1:10)	^[136]
A. vulgaris root		Brassica napus spp. oleifera var. biennis (winter oilseed rape)	Significant inhibition of germination at the 1:10 concentration
A. vulgaris aerial parts			Significant inhibition of root growth at 1:10 concentration Stimulation of shoot growth

* To highlight the active compounds, the major constituents of the volatile oils were noted in parentheses.

Artemisia fragrans essential oil inhibited seed germination and growth of Convolvulus arvensis at 1–4% concentration in a Petri dish and pot experiment. It significantly reduced the level of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) and of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, superoxide dismutase), as well as enhancing the production of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde. It seems that volatile oil compounds—mostly oxygenated monoterpenes—inhibited the electron transport chain and affected the process of photosynthesis, leading to an increased production of oxygen reactive species. In turn, these intensified the lipid peroxidation of the cell membrane followed by electrolyte leakage ^[126].

Oxygenated monoterpenes were the major ingredients of Artemisia sieversiana essential oil (α-thujone 64.46% and eucalyptol 10.15%) that suppressed seedling growth of Amaranthus retroflexus, Medicago sativa, Poa annua, and Pennisetum alopecuroides. The experiment showed that the mixture of the major constituents, in the same ratio as found in the oil, was more phytotoxic compared to each individual compound, indicating a possible synergistic effect of α-thujone and eucalyptol ^[133].

Although oxygenated monoterpenes were the major constituents of A. judaica essential oils obtained by hydro-distillation and microwave-assisted extraction, the oil extracted by hydro-distillation exhibited greater phytotoxicity on Lactuca sativa seed germination and plant growth ^[36], showing that the extraction method impacts the phytotoxic activity of volatile oils.

Major constituents of A. terrae-albae essential oil were tested on seed germination, root and shoot growth of Poa annua and Amaranthus retroflexus. The phytotoxic effect of α-thujone, eucalyptol, camphor, and the mixture of these compounds was inferior to that of the essential oil, which suggests that probably other volatile components are causing the herbicidal activity of the oil ^[134]. α-Terpinen and β-pinene, compounds of A. lavandulaefolia essential oil, exhibited strong phytotoxic activity on seed germination test against eight target plants (Table 3), whereas β-caryophyllene and myrcene only inhibited Achyranthes japonica seed germination ^[128].

Artemisia scoparia essential oil inhibits germination and plant growth through the production of oxidative stress related to membrane disruption, increased lipid peroxidation, and buildup of hydrogen peroxide. It also interferes in cellular respiration and photosynthesis processes ^[132].

Field experiments in Triticum aestivum used pre-emergence application of Artemisia vulgaris aqueous extract (20% w/v) together with chlorsulfuron. This treatment permitted lowering the dose of the herbicide up to 80%, while manifesting an inhibitory effect of 70% against Lolium multiflorum ^[137]. Another field trial demonstrated that A. argyi water extract markedly suppressed the growth of weeds in Chrysanthemum morifolium field with no adverse effect on the growth of C. morifolium. The investigations showed that A. argyi inhibited weed growth and germination through inhibition of chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthesis ^[108]. Conversely, field treatment of Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum Desf. with A. absinthium aqueous extract exerted a stimulating effect on weed presence and reduced wheat growth and yield ^[106].

The sensitivity of different weed species to a certain herbicide varies greatly. Among eight weeds tested in a study, Amaranthus retroflexus, Echinochloa cruss-galli, and Reseda lutea were more susceptible to the action of A. vulgaris essential oil, compared to Rumex crispus, Agrostemma githago, Trifolium pretense, Chenopodium album, and Cardaria draba, which were more resistant ^[135]. Similarly, Parthenium hysterophorus and Ageratum conyzoides were more vulnerable to the inhibitory effect of Artemisia scoparia volatile oil, in comparison with Cassia occidentalis, under laboratory conditions. In another test, Echinochloa crus-galli and Parthenium hysterophorus were more affected by post-emergence application of the oil ^[132].

The phytotoxicity of isolated compounds from Artemisia annua was evaluated against two monocots and five dicots (Table 3). The suppression of germination and seedling growth varies in the order: artemisinin>arteannuin B>artemisinic acid. Raphanus sativus was the most resistant to the action of tested compounds, followed by Secale cereale. The weaker activity of arteannuin B and artemisinic acid—molecules without an endoperoxide bridge—implies that the moiety is important for the phytotoxic effect ^[118]. Artemisinin reduces many physiological and biochemical processes in the target plant and affects mitosis by inhibiting microtubules formation ^[120]^[138].

The incorporation of artemisinin into soil inhibited the growth of above-ground lettuce plants, with EC₅₀ = 2.5 mg/Kg sandy soil, but the germination was not arrested up to 100 mg/Kg soil ^[139]. Furthermore, adding A. annua leaves containing 0.81–0.22% artemisinin in soil led to the inhibition of Zea mays growth ^[140]. Artemisinin is phytotoxic in concentrations comparable to those of commercial herbicides and has a good activity in soil ^[110].

In vivo tests proved that artemisinin is a potent suppressor of photosynthetic activity through the formation of a highly reactive artemisinin-metabolite that is able to inhibit the photosynthetic electron flow ^[141]. Other investigations showed that artemisinin enhances the generation of radical oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, which leads to cell death and arrest of mitotic phases in Lactuca sativa seedlings ^[119]. When added to the culture medium of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings, artemisinin (1, 2, 5, 20, 100 µM) reduced the root gravitropic responses, elongation of primary and lateral roots, root hairs density, and length. Furthermore, artemisinin diminished starch grain and auxin concentrations and affected auxin redistribution in root tips ^[142].

2.6. Activity on Non-Target Organisms

Since biopesticides and bioherbicides are of natural origin, they are considered to be less harmful to the environment and the health of applicators and consumers. Usually, plant-based formulations are mixtures of compounds, and they do not consist of a single substance, which should prevent resistance in target organisms. In addition, some phytochemicals are rapidly degraded in nature, so there is no risk of their accumulation in the environment, as is the case with chemical pesticides. Consequently, plant-based pesticides and herbicides are regarded as generally safe. Still, these products can affect the non-target organism directly or indirectly by influencing biodiversity and species interactions, so it is imperative to assess their safety ^[13]^[143].

Little information is available regarding the ecotoxicity of Artemisia compounds and extracts. Pino-Otin et al. ^[13] evaluated the toxicity of hydrolate and organic extracts from A. absinthium on three aquatic ecotoxicity indicator organisms: an invertebrate (Daphnia magna), a marine bacterium (Vibrio fisheri), and a unicellular freshwater alga (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii). The wormwood hydrolate, a by-product of essential oil extraction, is a promising biopesticide with nematicidal effect due to (5Z)-2,6-dimethylocta-5,7-dien-2,3-diol ^[97]. A. absinthium hydrolate caused acute toxicity on non-target organisms: D. magna (LC₅₀ = 0.236%) > V. fisheri (LC₅₀ = 1.85%) > C. reinhardtii (LC₅₀ = 16.49%). Moreover, the wormwood ethanol extract was highly toxic to D. magna (LC₅₀ = 0.093 mg/L). However, the effect of wormwood hydrolate on a river microbial community, composed mainly of Proteobacteria, was negligible, causing only small changes in metabolic diversity and a slight inhibition of bacterial growth. It is possible that natural freshwater microbial populations are more resistant to 2,6-dimethylocta-5,7-diene-2,3-diol action because of the modified bioavailability of compounds in the river water and particular sensitivity of the various microbial species ^[13].

The same A. absinthium hydrolate was tested on non-target soil organisms: natural microbial communities, the earthworm Eisenia fetida, and the plant Allium cepa. The hydrolate was toxic in low concentrations: it caused substantial inhibition of onion root growth (LC₅₀ = 3.87% v/v), high mortality of the earthworm E. fetida (LC₅₀ = 0.07 mL/g), and decreased bacterial metabolism (LC₅₀ = 25.72% v/v after 1 day of exposure). All these effects were exhibited at inferior concentrations than those needed to contain the target organism. Probably, 2,6-dimethylocta-5,7-diene-2,3-diol is able to penetrate biological membranes and thus affect the survival and metabolic processes of soil organism from different trophic levels ^[13].

The methanol extracts of Artemisia fragrans manifested significant toxicity in the brine shrimp (Artemia salina) lethality assay, with ED₅₀ = 19.7 ppm for the root extract and ED₅₀ = 11.99 ppm for flowers and leaves extract ^[56]. In another study, the aqueous extracts from Artemisia ordosica leaves were tested on two algae from the biological soil crusts, Chlorella vulgaris and Nostoc spp. The less concentrated extract (1 g/L) stimulated C. vulgaris growth but did not significantly affect Nostoc spp., indicating that C. vulgaris might utilize the sugars and other carbon sources in the extract to promote self-growth. The highly concentrated extract (5 and 10 g/L) inhibited the growth of both algae ^[109].

The safety profile of the Artemisia nilagirica essential oil was determined in terms of mammalian toxicity on male mice (Mus musculus) and millet (Eleusine coracana) seeds viability. The essential oil showed low toxicity on mice (LD₅₀ = 7528.10 µL/kg) and no effect on millet seed germination. Thus, the oil is suitable as a food preservative for both consumption and sowing purposes ^[40]. More so, Artemisia nilagirica essential oil did not cause any significant changes in the physicochemical and sensory properties of table grapes when applied by fumigation on the fruits ^[39].

Artemisia absinthium essential oil, a potential biopesticide, was evaluated for toxicity against non-target organisms: the honey bee (Apis mellifera) and tomato plant (Solanum lycopersicum). Honeybee toxicity (EC₅₀ = 0.26 mg/cm²) is reached at lower concentrations of A. absinthium oil than the ones necessary for controlling the leaf miner Tuta absoluta (EC₅₀ = 0.5 mg/cm²), but not at rates needed to control the whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (EC₅₀ = 0.08 mg/cm²). A similar phenomenon was noted for the phytotoxic effect on tomato; seed germination and root growth were inhibited at oil concentrations needed to control the leaf miner, but not the whitefly ^[66].

Investigations to date have shown that biopesticides derived from Artemisia are most likely to have some toxicity toward non-target organisms, and further studies are needed to assess the risk in natural communities in order to ensure the safe use of biopesticides in agricultural practices.

Choosing the right formulation can reduce toxicity as well as increase the stability and effectiveness of Artemisia biopesticides. For instance, terpenoids are lipophilic, volatile, and thermolabile compounds that are easily oxidized or hydrolyzed, so they can be affected during extraction, storage, and transport. Furthermore, after application onto plants, they volatilized quickly and start degrading, leading to short persistence and low efficacy in the field. These drawbacks can be overcome by a suitable formulation through encapsulation or nanoparticles synthesis. A product formulation is a homogeneous and stable mixture of components put together according to a specific procedure with the purpose of increasing the biological activity, stability, persistence, and efficiency, while decreasing the toxicity of the product. The selected formulation depends on the intended use and mode of application, the targeted phytopathogen, and the degradation factors present in the ecosystem ^[16].

References

Abad, M.J.; Bedoya, L.M.; Apaza, L.; Bermejo, P. The Artemisia L. Genus: A review of bioactive essential oils. Molecules 2012, 17, 2542–2566.
Trendafilova, A.; Moujir, L.M.; Sousa, P.M.C.; Seca, A.M.L. Research advances on health effects of edible Artemisia Species and some sesquiterpene lactones constituents. Foods 2020, 10, 65.
Septembre-Malaterre, A.; Lalarizo Rakoto, M.; Marodon, C.; Bedoui, Y.; Nakab, J.; Simon, E.; Hoarau, L.; Savriama, S.; Strasberg, D.; Guiraud, P.; et al. Artemisia annua, a traditional plant brought to light. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 4986.
Ekiert, H.; Pajor, J.; Klin, P.; Rzepiela, A.; Ślesak, H.; Szopa, A. Significance of Artemisia vulgaris L. (Common Mugwort) in the history of medicine and its possible contemporary applications substantiated by phytochemical and pharmacological studies. Molecules 2020, 25, 4415.
Szopa, A.; Pajor, J.; Klin, P.; Rzepiela, A.; Elansary, H.O.; Al-Mana, F.A.; Mattar, M.A.; Ekiert, H. Artemisia absinthium L.—Importance in the history of medicine, the latest advances in phytochemistry and therapeutical, cosmetological and culinary uses. Plants 2020, 9, 1063.
Pandey, A.K.; Singh, P. The Genus Artemisia: A 2012–2017 Literature review on chemical composition, antimicrobial, insecticidal and antioxidant activities of essential oils. Medicines 2017, 4, 68.
Liu, S.-J.; Liao, Z.-X.; Tang, Z.-S.; Cui, C.-L.; Liu, H.-B.; Liang, Y.-N.; Zhang, Y.; Shi, H.-X.; Liu, Y.-R. Phytochemicals and biological activities of Artemisia sieversiana. Phytochem. Rev. 2017, 16, 441–460.
Dib, I.; Angenot, L.; Mihamou, A.; Ziyyat, A.; Tits, M. Artemisia campestris L.: Ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological review. J. Herb. Med. 2017, 7, 1–10.
Martinez, A.J. Natural fungicides obtained from plants. In Fungicides for Plant and Animal Diseases; InTech: London, UK, 2012; pp. 3–28.
Bora, K.S.; Sharma, A. The genus Artemisia: A comprehensive review. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 101–109.
Basaid, K.; Chebli, B.; Mayad, E.H.; Furze, J.N.; Bouharroud, R.; Krier, F.; Barakate, M.; Paulitz, T. Biological activities of essential oils and lipopeptides applied to control plant pests and diseases: A review. Int. J. Pest Manag. 2021, 67, 155–177.
Saroj, A.; Oriyomi, O.V.; Nayak, A.K.; Haider, S.Z. Phytochemicals of plant-derived essential oils. In Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 65–79.
Pino-Otín, M.R.; Ballestero, D.; Navarro, E.; González-Coloma, A.; Val, J.; Mainar, A.M. Ecotoxicity of a novel biopesticide from Artemisia absinthium on non-target aquatic organisms. Chemosphere 2019, 216, 131–146.
Pavela, R.; Benelli, G. Essential oils as ecofriendly biopesticides? Challenges and constraints. Trends Plant Sci. 2016, 21, 1000–1007.
Jain, A.; Sarsaiya, S.; Wu, Q.; Lu, Y.; Shi, J. A review of plant leaf fungal diseases and its environment speciation. Bioengineered 2019, 10, 409–424.
Raveau, R.; Fontaine, J.; Lounès-Hadj Sahraoui, A. Essential oils as potential alternative biocontrol products against plant pathogens and weeds: A review. Foods 2020, 9, 365.
Badea, M.L.; Delian, E. In vitro antifungal activity of the essential oils from Artemisia spp. L. on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Rom. Biotechnol. Lett. 2014, 19, 9345–9352.
Julio, L.F.; Burillo, J.; Giménez, C.; Cabrera, R.; Díaz, C.E.; Sanz, J.; González-Coloma, A. Chemical and biocidal characterization of two cultivated Artemisia absinthium populations with different domestication levels. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 76, 787–792.
Parveen, S.; Wani, A.H.; Ganie, A.A.; Pala, S.A.; Mir, R.A. Antifungal activity of some plant extracts on some pathogenic fungi. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2014, 47, 279–284.
Huang, X.; Chen, S.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Bi, Z.; Yuan, H. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils from three Artemisia species against Alternaria solani. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2019, 22, 1581–1592.
Ma, Y.-N.; Chen, C.-J.; Li, Q.-Q.; Xu, F.-R.; Cheng, Y.-X.; Dong, X. Monitoring antifungal agents of Artemisia annua against Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani, associated with Panax notoginseng root-rot disease. Molecules 2019, 24, 213.
Jhansi Rani, S.; Supraja, P.; Sujitha, A.; Kiranmayee, P.; Usha, R. Evaluation of antibacterial and antifungal activity of Artemisia annua during pre and post flowering stages. Int. J. Curr. Res. 2015, 7, 21581–21587.
Gautam, P.; Upadhyay, S.K.; Hassan, W.; Madan, T.; Sirdeshmukh, R.; Sundaram, C.S.; Gade, W.N.; Basir, S.F.; Singh, Y.; Sarma, P.U. Transcriptomic and proteomic profile of Aspergillus fumigatus on exposure to artemisinin. Mycopathologia 2011, 172, 331–346.
Bouzenna, H.; Krichen, L. Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. and Artemisia arborescens L. essential oils: Chemical composition, antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani and insecticidal activity against Rhysopertha dominica. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 841–846.
Guan, X.; Ge, D.; Li, S.; Huang, K.; Liu, J.; Li, F. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of Artemisia argyi Lévl. et Vant essential oils extracted by simultaneous distillation-extraction, subcritical extraction and hydrodistillation. Molecules 2019, 24, 483.
Wenqiang, G.; Shufen, L.; Ruixiang, Y.; Yanfeng, H. Comparison of composition and antifungal activity of Artemisia argyi Lévl. et Vant inflorescence essential oil extracted by hydrodistillation and supercritical carbon dioxide. Nat. Prod. Res. 2006, 20, 992–998.
Petretto, G.L.; Chessa, M.; Piana, A.; Masia, M.D.; Foddai, M.; Mangano, G.; Culeddu, N.; Afifi, F.U.; Pintore, G. Chemical and biological study on the essential oil of Artemisia caerulescens L. ssp. densiflora (Viv.). Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 1709–1715.
Karabegović, I.; Nikolova, M.; Veličković, D.; Stojičević, S.; Veljković, V.; Lazić, M. Comparison of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts of the Artemisia sp. recovered by different extraction techniques. Chin. J. Chem. Eng. 2011, 19, 504–511.
Houicher, A.; Hechachna, H.; Özogul, F. In vitro determination of the antifungal activity of Artemisia campestris essential oil from Algeria. Int. J. Food Prop. 2016, 19, 1749–1756.
Eblaghi, M.; Khajehie, N.; Golmakani, M.-T.; Eskandari, M.H. Investigating the effects of microwave-assisted hydrodistillation on antioxidant and antifungal activities of Tanacetum polycephalum and Artemisia chamaemelifolia essential oils. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2016, 28, 528–539.
Goudjil, M.B.; Ladjel, S.; Bencheikh, S.E.; Hammoya, F.; Bensaci, M.B.; Zighmi, S.; Mehani, M. Bioactivity of Artemisia herba alba essential oil against plant pathogenic fungi. Der Pharma Chem. 2016, 8, 46–52.
Khaddor, M.; Lamarti, A.; Tantaoui-Elaraki, A.; Ezziyyani, M.; Castillo, M.-E.C.; Badoc, A. Antifungal activity of three essential oils on growth and toxigenesis of Penicillium aurantiogriseum and Penicillium viridicatum. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2006, 18, 586–589.
Saleh, M.; Belal, M.; El-Baroty, G. Fungicidal activity of Artemisia herba alba Asso (Asteraceae). J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B Pestic. Food Contam. Agric. Wastes 2006, 41, 237–244.
El-Wassimy, M.T.M.; Ahmed, M.M.; Younes, S.H.H.; Hegazy, M.-E.F. In vitro antiproliferative and antimicrobial activity of 11-epiartapshin compound isolated from Seriphidium herba-alba. J. Pharm. Appl. Chem. 2018, 4, 147–154.
Rashid, M.U.; Alamzeb, M.; Ali, S.; Shah, Z.A.; Naz, I.; Khan, A.A.; Semaan, D.; Khan, M.R. A new irregular monoterpene acetate along with eight known compounds with antifungal potential from the aerial parts of Artemisia incisa Pamp (Asteraceae). Nat. Prod. Res. 2017, 31, 428–435.
Elshamy, A.; Abd-ElGawad, A.; Mohamed, T.; El Gendy, A.E.; Abd El Aty, A.A.; Saleh, I.; Moustafa, M.F.; Hussien, T.A.; Pare, P.W.; Hegazy, M. Extraction development for antimicrobial and phytotoxic essential oils from Asteraceae species: Achillea fragrantissima, Artemisia judaica and Tanacetum sinaicum. Flavour Fragr. J. 2021, 36, 352–364.
Hadian, J.; Ramak-Masoumi, T.; Farzaneh, M.; Mirjalili, M.-H.; Nejad-Ebrahimi, S.; Ghorbani, M. Chemical compositions of essential oil of Artemisia khorasanica Podl. and its antifungal activity on soil-born phytopathogens. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2007, 10, 53–59.
Mohan, M.; Pandey, A.K.; Singh, P.; Nautiyal, M.K.; Gupta, S. Evaluation of Artemisia maritima L. essential oil for its chemical and biological properties against some foodborne pathogens. Anal. Chem. Lett. 2016, 6, 47–54.
Sonker, N.; Pandey, A.K.; Singh, P. Efficiency of Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. essential oil as a mycotoxicant against postharvest mycobiota of table grapes. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2015, 95, 1932–1939.
Kumar, M.; Dwivedy, A.K.; Sarma, P.; Dkhar, M.S.; Kayang, H.; Raghuwanshi, R.; Dubey, N.K. Chemically characterised Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. essential oil as a safe plant-based preservative and shelf-life enhancer of millets against fungal and aflatoxin contamination and lipid peroxidation. Plant Biosyst. An Int. J. Deal. Asp. Plant Biol. 2020, 154, 269–276.
Sati, S.C.; Sati, N.; Ahluwalia, V.; Walia, S.; Sati, O.P. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Artemisia nilagirica essential oil growing in northern hilly areas of India. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 45–48.
Shafi, P.M.; Nambiar, M.K.G.; Clery, R.A.; Sarma, Y.R.; Veena, S.S. Composition and antifungal activity of the oil of Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2004, 16, 377–379.
Deepak, S.A.; Oros, G.; Sathyanarayana, S.G.; Shetty, N.P.; Shetty, H.S.; Sashikanth, S. Antisporulant activity of leaf extracts of Indian plants against Sclerospora graminicola causing downy mildew disease of pearl millet. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2005, 38, 31–39.
Sampietro, D.A.; Lizarraga, E.F.; Ibatayev, Z.A.; Omarova, A.B.; Suleimen, Y.M.; Catalán, C.A.N. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Acantholippia deserticola, Artemisia proceriformis, Achillea micrantha and Libanotis buchtormensis against phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi. Nat. Prod. Res. 2016, 30, 1950–1955.
Mohamed, T.A.; Hegazy, M.-E.F.; Abd El Aty, A.A.; Ghabbour, H.A.; Alsaid, M.S.; Shahat, A.A.; Paré, P.W. Antimicrobial sesquiterpene lactones from Artemisia sieberi. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 2017, 19, 1093–1101.
Ghasemi, G.; Alirezalu, A.; Ishkeh, S.R.; Ghosta, Y. Phytochemical properties of essential oil from Artemisia sieberi Besser (Iranian accession) and its antioxidant and antifungal activities. Nat. Prod. Res. 2020, 1–5.
Manika, N.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Darokar, M.; Singh, S.; Bagchi, G.D. Compositional characters and antimicrobial potential of Artemisia stricta Edgew. f. stricta Pamp. essential oil. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2016, 10, 40–44.
Sampietro, D.A.; de los A. Gomez, A.; Jimenez, C.M.; Lizarraga, E.F.; Ibatayev, Z.A.; Suleimen, Y.M.; Catalán, C.A. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils from medicinal plants of Kazakhstan. Nat. Prod. Res. 2017, 31, 1464–1467.
Behravan, J.; Ramezani, M.; Hassanzadeh, M.K.; Eliaspour, N.; Sabeti, Z. Cytotoxic and antimycotic activities of essential oil of Artemisia turanica Krasch from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2006, 9, 196–203.
Park, I.-K.; Kim, J.; Lee, Y.-S.; Shin, S.-C. In vivo fungicidal activity of medicinal plant extracts against six phytopathogenic fungi. Int. J. Pest Manag. 2008, 54, 63–68.
da Cruz Cabral, L.; Fernández Pinto, V.; Patriarca, A. Application of plant derived compounds to control fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production in foods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 166, 1–14.
Tantaoui-Elaraki, A.; Ferhout, H.; Errifi, A. Inhibition of the fungal asexual reproduction stages by three Moroccan essential oils. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1993, 5, 535–545.
Xu, Y.; Zhao, L.; Chen, P.; Jiang, X.; Wei, G. Isolation, screening and characterization of phytopathogen antagonistic endophytes from wild Artemisia argyi. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2013, 33, 3697–3705.
Ahameethunisa, A.R.; Hopper, W. Antibacterial activity of Artemisia nilagirica leaf extracts against clinical and phytopathogenic bacteria. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2010, 10.
Sukanya, S.L.; Sudisha, J.; Hariprasad, P.; Niranjana, S.R.; Prakash, H.S.; Fathima, S.K. Antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of Indian medicinal plants against clinical and phytopathogenic bacteria. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009, 8, 6677–6682.
Inayatullah, S.; Irum, R.; Ateeq-Ur-Rehman; Chaudhary, M.F.; Mirza, B. Biological evaluation of some selected plant species of Pakistan. Pharm. Biol. 2007, 45, 397–403.
Dadasoglu, F.; Kotan, R.; Cakir, A.; Cakmakci, R.; Kordali, S.; Ozer, H.; Karagoz, K.; Dikbas, N. Antibacterial activities of essential oils, extracts and some of their major components of Artemisia spp. L. against seed-borne plant pathogenic bacteria. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2015, 24, 2715–2724.
Mathlouthi, A.; Saadaoui, N.; Pennacchietti, E.; De Biase, D.; Ben-Attia, M. Essential oils from Artemisia species inhibit biofilm formation and the virulence of Escherichia coli EPEC 2348/69. Biofouling 2021, 37, 174–183.
Hikal, W.M.; Baeshen, R.S.; Said-Al Ahl, H.A.H. Botanical insecticide as simple extractives for pest control. Cogent Biol. 2017, 3, 1404274.
Spochacz, M.; Chowański, S.; Walkowiak-Nowicka, K.; Szymczak, M.; Adamski, Z. Plant-derived substances used against beetles–pests of stored crops and food–and their mode of action: A Review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2018, 17, 1339–1366.
Regnault-Roger, C.; Philogène, B.J.R. Past and current prospects for the use of botanicals and plant allelochemicals in integrated pest management. Pharm. Biol. 2008, 46, 41–52.
Rattan, R.S. Mechanism of action of insecticidal secondary metabolites of plant origin. Crop Prot. 2010, 29, 913–920.
Abdelgaleil, S.A.M.; Badawy, M.E.I.; Mahmoud, N.F.; Marei, A.E.-S.M. Acaricidal activity, biochemical effects and molecular docking of some monoterpenes against two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch). Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2019, 156, 105–115.
Abdelgaleil, S.A.M.; Mohamed, M.I.E.; Shawir, M.S.; Abou-Taleb, H.K. Chemical composition, insecticidal and biochemical effects of essential oils of different plant species from Northern Egypt on the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L. J. Pest Sci. 2016, 89, 219–229.
Kumar, S.; Nehra, M.; Dilbaghi, N.; Marrazza, G.; Hassan, A.A.; Kim, K.H. Nano-based smart pesticide formulations: Emerging opportunities for agriculture. J. Control. Release 2019, 294, 131–153.
Umpiérrez, M.L.; Paullier, J.; Porrini, M.; Garrido, M.; Santos, E.; Rossini, C. Potential botanical pesticides from Asteraceae essential oils for tomato production: Activity against whiteflies, plants and bees. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 109, 686–692.
Cheng, Z.H.; Duan, H.J.; Zhu, X.R.; Fan, F.F.; Li, R.; Li, S.C.; Ma, X.Y.; Zhang, E.J.; Liu, Y.K.; Wang, J.Y. Effects of patchouli and wormwood oils on the bioassays and behaviors of Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acari: Tetranychidae). Int. J. Pest Manag. 2020, 66, 271–278.
Seixas, P.T.L.; Demuner, A.J.; Alvarenga, E.S.; Barbosa, L.C.A.; Marques, A.; de Farias, E.S.; Picanço, M.C. Bioactivity of essential oils from Artemisia against Diaphania hyalinata and its selectivity to beneficial insects. Sci. Agric. 2018, 75, 519–525.
Dane, Y.; Mouhouche, F.; Canela-Garayoa, R.; Delpino-Rius, A. Phytochemical analysis of methanolic extracts of Artemisia absinthium L. 1753 (Asteraceae), Juniperus phoenicea L., and Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast, 1892 (Cupressaceae) and evaluation of their biological activity for stored grain protection. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 2016, 41, 2147–2158.
Bachrouch, O.; Ferjani, N.; Haouel, S.; Jemâa, J.M.B. Major compounds and insecticidal activities of two Tunisian Artemisia essential oils toward two major coleopteran pests. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 65, 127–133.
Kłyś, M.; Przystupińska, A. The mortality of Oryzaephilus surinamensis Linnaeus, 1758 (Coleoptera: Silvanidae) induced by powdered plants. J. Plant Prot. Res. 2015, 55, 110–116.
Brudea, V.; Rîşca, I.; Enea, C.; Tomescu, C. Efficacy of some biopesticides and plant secondary metabolites against fall webworm Hyphantria Cunea Drury (F. Arctiidae-Lepidoptera) in the lab conditions. Cercet. Agron. Mold. 2012, 45, 73–80.
Martín, L.; González-Coloma, A.; Burillo, J.; Palavra, A.M.F.F.; Urieta, J.S.; Mainar, A.M. Microcalorimetric determination of the activity of supercritical extracts of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.) over Spodoptera littoralis. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2013, 111, 1837–1844.
Czerniewicz, P.; Chrzanowski, G.; Sprawka, I.; Sytykiewicz, H. Aphicidal activity of selected Asteraceae essential oils and their effect on enzyme activities of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2018, 145, 84–92.
Rizvi, S.A.H.; Ling, S.; Tian, F.; Xie, F.; Zeng, X. Toxicity and enzyme inhibition activities of the essential oil and dominant constituents derived from Artemisia absinthium L. against adult Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 121, 468–475.
Anshul, N.; Kalra, A.; Singh, D. Biological effect of sweet wormwood, Artemisia annua methanol extracts and essential oil against Helicoverpa armigera Hub. (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae). J. Entomol. Zool. Stud. 2014, 2, 304–307.
Anshul, N.; Bhakuni, R.S.; Gaur, R.; Singh, D. Isomeric flavonoids of Artemisia annua (Asterales: Asteraceae) as insect growth inhibitors against Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Florida Entomol. 2013, 96, 897–903.
Oftadeh, M.; Sendi, J.J.; Ebadollahi, A. Toxicity and deleterious effects of Artemisia annua essential oil extracts on mulberry pyralid (Glyphodes pyloalis). Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2020, 170, 104702.
Hasheminia, S.M.; Sendi, J.J.; Jahromi, K.T.; Moharramipour, S. The effects of Artemisia annua L. and Achillea millefolium L. crude leaf extracts on the toxicity, development, feeding efficiency and chemical activities of small cabbage Pieris rapae L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2011, 99, 244–249.
Zibaee, A.; Zibaee, I.; Bandani, A.R. Artemisia annua L. (Asterasea) changes some biochemical compounds in the hemolymph of Hyphantria cunea Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). J. Med. Plants Res. 2011, 5, 3229–3235.
Khosravi, R.; Sendi, J.J.; Ghadamyari, M.; Yezdani, E. Effect of sweet wormwood Artemisia annua crude leaf extracts on some biological and physiological characteristics of the lesser mulberry pyralid, Glyphodes pyloalis. J. Insect Sci. 2011, 11, 1–13.
Ahmed, M.; Peiwen, Q.; Gu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Sikandar, A.; Hussain, D.; Javeed, A.; Shafi, J.; Iqbal, M.F.; An, R.; et al. Insecticidal activity and biochemical composition of Citrullus colocynthis, Cannabis indica and Artemisia argyi extracts against cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae L.). Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1–10.
Ebadollahi, A.; Ashouri, S. Toxicity of essential oils isolated from Achillea millefolium L., Artemisia dracunculus L. and Heracleum persicum Desf. against adults of Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Islamic Republic of Iran. Ecol. Balk. 2011, 3, 41–48.
Liu, X.C.; Li, Y.; Wang, T.; Wang, Q.; Liu, Z.L. Chemical composition and insecticidal activity of essential oil of Artemisia frigida Willd (Compositae) against two grain storage insects. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2014, 13, 587–592.
Zhang, Z.; Pang, X.; Guo, S.; Cao, J.; Wang, Y.; Chen, Z.; Feng, Y.; Lei, N.; Du, S. Insecticidal activity of Artemisia frigida Willd. essential oil and its constituents against three stored product insects. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2019, 13, 176–181.
Zhou, J.; Zou, K.; Zhang, W.; Guo, S.; Liu, H.; Sun, J.; Li, J.; Huang, D.; Wu, Y.; Du, S.; et al. Efficacy of compounds isolated from the essential oil of Artemisia lavandulaefolia in control of the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne. Molecules 2018, 23, 343.
Hussein, H.S.; Tawfeek, M.E.; Abdelgaleil, S.A.M. Chemical composition, aphicidal and antiacetylcholinesterase activities of essential oils against Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Aphididae). J. Asia. Pac. Entomol. 2021.
Yumnam, S.; Singh, K.I.; Ray, D.C. Effect of indigenous plant extracts on the incidence of Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Kharif rice ecosystem. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 2017, 76, 494–500.
Gokturk, T.; Kordali, S.; Calmasur, O.; Tozlu, G. Insecticidal effects of essential plant oils against larvae of great spruce bark beetle, Dendroctonus micans (Kugelann) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae). Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2011, 20, 2365–2370.
Sharifian, I.; Hashemi, S.M.; Darvishzadeh, A. Fumigant toxicity of essential oil of mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L.) against three major stored product beetles. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. 2013, 46, 445–450.
Jalali Sendi, J.; Khosravi, R. Recent developments in controlling insect, acari, nematode, and plant pathogens of agricultural and medical importance by Artemisia annua L. (Asteraceae). In Artemisia Annua—Pharmacology and Biotechnology; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 229–247.
Oka, Y.; Nacar, S.; Putievsky, E.; Ravid, U.; Yaniv, Z.; Spiegel, Y. Nematicidal activity of essential oils and their components against the root-knot nematode. Phytopathology 2000, 90, 710–715.
Shakil, N.A.; Prasad, D.; Saxena, D.B.; Gupta, A.K. Nematicidal activity of essential oils of Artemisia annua against root-knot and reniform nematodes. Ann. Plant Prot. Sci. 2004, 12, 397–402.
Avato, P.; Laquale, S.; Argentieri, M.P.; Lamiri, A.; Radicci, V.; D’Addabbo, T. Nematicidal activity of essential oils from aromatic plants of Morocco. J. Pest Sci. 2017, 90, 711–722.
Amora, D.X.; de Podestá, G.S.; Grupioni, P.H.F.; das Nasu, É.G.C.; de Figueiredo, L.D.; Ferreira, F.C.; de Freitas, L.G.; Lopes, E.A.; Ferraz, S. Effect of essential oils on the root-knot nematode. Rev. Agri Environ. Sci. 2017, 3, 15–23.
Kundu, A.; Dutta, A.; Mandal, A.; Negi, L.; Malik, M.; Puramchatwad, R.; Antil, J.; Singh, A.; Rao, U.; Saha, S.; et al. A Comprehensive in vitro and in silico analysis of nematicidal action of essential oils. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 11.
Julio, L.F.; González-Coloma, A.; Burillo, J.; Diaz, C.E.; Andrés, M.F. Nematicidal activity of the hydrolate byproduct from the semi industrial vapor pressure extraction of domesticated Artemisia absinthium against Meloidogyne javanica. Crop Prot. 2017, 94, 33–37.
Kalaiselvi, D.; Mohankumar, A.; Shanmugam, G.; Thiruppathi, G.; Nivitha, S.; Sundararaj, P. Altitude-related changes in the phytochemical profile of essential oils extracted from Artemisia nilagirica and their nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita. Ind. Crops Prod. 2019, 139, 111472.
Suresh, J.; Mahesh, N.M.; Ahuja, J.; Santilna, K.S. Review on Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. J. Biol. Act. Prod. Nat. 2011, 1, 97–104.
Khan, R.; Naz, I.; Hussain, S.; Khan, R.A.A.; Ullah, S.; Rashid, M.U.; Siddique, I. Phytochemical management of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) kofoid and white chitwood by Artemisia spp. in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.). Braz. J. Biol. 2020, 80, 829–838.
Farooq, N.; Abbas, T.; Tanveer, A.; Jabran, K. Allelopathy for weed management. In Co-Evolution of Secondary Metabolites. Reference Series in Phytochemistry; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 505–519.
Chen, H.; Singh, H.; Bhardwaj, N.; Bhardwaj, S.K.; Khatri, M.; Kim, K.-H.; Peng, W. An exploration on the toxicity mechanisms of phytotoxins and their potential utilities. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 1–41.
Muzell Trezzi, M.; Vidal, R.A.; Balbinot Junior, A.A.; von Hertwig Bittencourt, H.; da Silva Souza Filho, A.P. Allelopathy: Driving mechanisms governing its activity in agriculture. J. Plant Interact. 2016, 11, 53–60.
Pannacci, E.; Masi, M.; Farneselli, M.; Tei, F. Evaluation of mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L.) aqueous extract as a potential bioherbicide to control Amaranthus retroflexus L. in maize. Agriculture 2020, 10, 642.
Kapoor, D.; Rinzim; Tiwari, A.; Sehgal, A.; Landi, M.; Brestic, M.; Sharma, A. Exploiting the allelopathic potential of aqueous leaf extracts of Artemisia absinthium and Psidium guajava against Parthenium hysterophorus, a widespread weed in India. Plants 2019, 8, 552.
Carrubba, A.; Labruzzo, A.; Comparato, A.; Muccilli, S.; Spina, A. Use of plant water extracts for weed control in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. Subsp. durum Desf.). Agronomy 2020, 10, 364.
Labruzzo, A.; Cantrell, C.L.; Carrubba, A.; Ali, A.; Wedge, D.E.; Duke, S.O. Phytotoxic lignans from Artemisia arborescens. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2018, 13, 1934578X1801300.
Li, J.; Chen, L.; Chen, Q.; Miao, Y.; Peng, Z.; Huang, B.; Guo, L.; Liu, D.; Du, H. Allelopathic effect of Artemisia argyi on the germination and growth of various weeds. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 4303.
Zhou, X.; Zhang, Y.; An, X.; De Philippis, R.; Ma, X.; Ye, C.; Chen, L. Identification of aqueous extracts from Artemisia ordosica and their allelopathic effects on desert soil algae. Chemoecology 2019, 29, 61–71.
Knudsmark Jessing, K.; Duke, S.O.; Cedergreeen, N. Potential ecological roles of artemisinin produced by Artemisia annua L. J. Chem. Ecol. 2014, 40, 100–117.
Radhakrishnan, R.; Alqarawi, A.A.; Abd Allah, E.F. Bioherbicides: Current knowledge on weed control mechanism. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2018, 158, 131–138.
Bordin, E.R.; Frumi Camargo, A.; Stefanski, F.S.; Scapini, T.; Bonatto, C.; Zanivan, J.; Preczeski, K.; Modkovski, T.A.; Reichert Júnior, F.; Mossi, A.J.; et al. Current production of bioherbicides: Mechanisms of action and technical and scientific challenges to improve food and environmental security. Biocatal. Biotransform. 2020, 1–14.
Verdeguer, M.; Sánchez-Moreiras, A.M.; Araniti, F. Phytotoxic effects and mechanism of action of essential oils and terpenoids. Plants 2020, 9, 1571.
Fouad, R.; Bousta, D.; Lalami, A.E.O.; Chahdi, F.O.; Amri, I.; Jamoussi, B.; Greche, H. Chemical composition and herbicidal effects of essential oils of Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf, Eucalyptus cladocalyx, Origanum vulgare L. and Artemisia absinthium L. cultivated in Morocco. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2015, 18, 112–123.
Aryakia, E.; Naghavi, M.R.; Farahmand, Z.; Shahzadeh Fazeli, A.A.H. Evaluating allelopathic effects of some plant species in tissue culture media as an accurate method for selection of tolerant plant and screening of bioherbicides. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 2015, 17, 1011–1023.
Ammann, N.; Pieterse, P.J. Effects of Artemisia afra leaf extracts on seed germination of selected crop and weed species. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil 2005, 22, 263–265.
Benvenuti, S.; Cioni, P.L.; Flamini, G.; Pardossi, A. Weeds for weed control: Asteraceae essential oils as natural herbicides. Weed Res. 2017, 57, 342–353.
Paramanik, R.C.; Chikkaswamy, B.K.; Roy, D.G.; Achinto, P.; Venkatesh, K. Effects of biochemicals of Artemisia annua in plants. J. Phytol. Res. 2008, 21, 11–18.
Yan, Z.-Q.; Wang, D.-D.; Ding, L.; Cui, H.-Y.; Jin, H.; Yang, X.-Y.; Yang, J.-S.; Qin, B. Mechanism of artemisinin phytotoxicity action: Induction of reactive oxygen species and cell death in lettuce seedlings. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2015, 88, 53–59.
Hussain, M.I.; Reigosa, M.J. Characterization of xanthophyll pigments, photosynthetic performance, photon energy dissipation, reactive oxygen species generation and carbon isotope discrimination during artemisinin-induced stress in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0114826.
Araniti, F.; Gullì, T.; Marrelli, M.; Statti, G.; Gelsomino, A.; Abenavoli, M.R. Artemisia arborescens L. leaf litter: Phytotoxic activity and phytochemical characterization. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2016, 38, 128.
Araniti, F.; Lupini, A.; Sorgonà, A.; Conforti, F.; Marrelli, M.; Statti, G.A.; Menichini, F.; Abenavoli, M.R. Allelopathic potential of Artemisia arborescens: Isolation, identification and quantification of phytotoxic compounds through fractionation-guided bioassays. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 880–887.
Dhifi, W.; Jilani, I.B.H.; Bellili, S.; Jazi, S.; El Beyrouthy, M.; Mnif, W. Essential oil chemical characterization and allelopathic potential of Artemisia campestris L. growing in Tunisia. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Food Sci. 2017, 7, 302–305.
da Silva Saraiva, C.S. Bioherbicidal Effect of Plant Aqueous Extracts and Essential Oils; Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra: Coimbra, Portugal, 2019.
Sekine, T.; Appiah, K.S.; Azizi, M.; Fujii, Y. Plant growth inhibitory activities and volatile active compounds of 53 spices and herbs. Plants 2020, 9, 264.
Pouresmaeil, M.; Nojadeh, M.S.; Movafeghi, A.; Maggi, F. Exploring the bio-control efficacy of Artemisia fragrans essential oil on the perennial weed Convolvulus arvensis: Inhibitory effects on the photosynthetic machinery and induction of oxidative stress. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 155, 112785.
Zhang, R.M.; Zuo, Z.J.; Gao, P.J.; Hou, P.; Wen, G.S.; Gao, Y. Allelopathic effects of VOCs of Artemisia frigida Willd. on the regeneration of pasture grasses in Inner Mongolia. J. Arid Environ. 2012, 87, 212–218.
Kil, B.S.; Han, D.M.; Lee, C.H.; Kim, Y.S.; Yun, K.Y.; Yoo, H.G. Allelopathic effects of Artemisia lavandulaefolia. Korean J. Ecol. 2000, 23, 149–155.
Al-Watban, A.; Salama, H.M.H. Physiological effects of allelopathic activity of Artemisia monosperma on common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Int. Res. J. Plant Sci. 2012, 3, 158–163.
Algandaby, M.M.; El-Darier, S.M. Management of the noxious weed; Medicago polymorpha L. via allelopathy of some medicinal plants from Taif region, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2018, 25, 1339–1347.
Singh, H.P.; Kaur, S.; Mittal, S.; Batish, D.R.; Kohli, R.K. Essential oil of Artemisia scoparia inhibits plant growth by generating reactive oxygen species and causing oxidative damage. J. Chem. Ecol. 2009, 35, 154–162.
Kaur, S.; Singh, H.P.; Mittal, S.; Batish, D.R.; Kohli, R.K. Phytotoxic effects of volatile oil from Artemisia scoparia against weeds and its possible use as a bioherbicide. Ind. Crops Prod. 2010, 32, 54–61.
Jiang, C.-Y.; Zhou, S.-X.; Toshmatov, Z.; Mei, Y.; Jin, G.-Z.; Han, C.-X.; Zhang, C.; Shao, H. Chemical composition and phytotoxic activity of the essential oil of Artemisia sieversiana growing in Xinjiang, China. Nat. Prod. Res. 2020, 1–6.
Shao, H.; Hu, Y.; Han, C.; Wei, C.; Zhou, S.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, C. Chemical composition and phytotoxic activity of Seriphidium terrae-albae (Krasch.) Poljakov (Compositae) essential oil. Chem. Biodivers. 2018, 15, e1800348.
Önen, H.; Özer, Z.; Telci, I. Bioherbicidal effects of some plant essential oils on different weed species. J. Plant Dis. Prot. 2002, 18, 597–605.
Marcinkeviciene, A.; Kriauciuniene, Z.; Velicka, R.; Kosteckas, R.; Fujii, Y. Allelopathic effect of Artemisia vulgaris on winter wheat and winter oilseed rape. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2018, 27, 727–732.
Pannacci, E.; Pettorossi, D.; Regni, L.; Tei, F. Allelopathic potential of mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris L.) to control the Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) in winter wheat. Allelopath. J. 2015, 36, 257–272.
Dayan, F.E.; Duke, S.O. Biological activity of allelochemicals. In Plant-Derived Natural Products; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2009; pp. 361–384.
Jessing, K.K.; Cedergreen, N.; Jensen, J.; Hansen, H.C.B. Degradation and ecotoxicity of the biomedical drug artemisinin in soil. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2009, 28, 701–710.
Delabays, N.; Slacanin, I.; Bohren, C. Herbicidal potential of artemisinin and allelopathic properties of Artemisia annua L: From the laboratory to the field. J. Plant Dis. Proctection 2008, 317–322.
Bharati, A.; Kar, M.; Sabat, S.C. Artemisinin inhibits chloroplast electron transport activity: Mode of action. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e38942.
Yan, Z.; Wang, D.; Cui, H.; Sun, Y.; Yang, X.; Jin, H.; Zhao, Y.; Li, X.; Xie, M.; Liu, J.; et al. Effects of artemisinin on root gravitropic response and root system development in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Growth Regul. 2018, 85, 211–220.
Shao, H.; Zhang, Y. Non-target effects on soil microbial parameters of the synthetic pesticide carbendazim with the biopesticides cantharidin and norcantharidin. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 5521.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Bianca Ivanescu

View Times: 1.6K

Update Date: 02 Jul 2021

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm