The soil microbial community is important for plant health. Both pathogenic and beneficial strains affect plant growth and health
[101]. A shift in microbial community composition with the accumulation of pathogenic microorganisms and the absence of plant growth-promoting microorganisms are linked with replant diseases of several plant species
[2][15]. Biofumigation can alter the soil microbial community. Isothiocyanates were reported to inhibit nitrifying bacteria in in vitro bioassays at a dose of 10 µg isothiocyanate/g soil (= 101 nmol allyl isothiocyanate/g soil) depending on the soil type (using sandy- and clay-loam soil, pH 5.9 and pH 7.5, respectively; soils moistened to −480 kPa, incubation at 15 °C for up to 42 days)
[102]. Interestingly, in laboratory experiments, 0.32 µmol allyl glucosinolate/g soil [slightly loamy sand and sandy soil (pH 4.8–5.3), water holding capacity 100%] affected the soil microbial communities even stronger than in combination with myrosinase (0.16 µmol/g soil + 0.02 units of myrosinase/g soil), which released the isothiocyanate (room temperature, sampling after 7 days)
[53]. Moreover, Siebers et al. reported a decline in soil microbial diversity as accessed by next generation sequencing (sampling after 7–28 days) in a laboratory experiment after soil (loamy sand, pH 6.1) treatment with a rapeseed extract (RSE) rich in glucosinolate hydrolysis products (33 µL RSE/g soil (incubation at 21 °C, moisture less than 18%, RSE addition every 3 days for up to 28 days; in sum ~575 nmol goitrin and ~366 nmol sinapic acid choline ester/g soil added). However, when cultivating surviving fungi and bacteria from treated soils, many of these strains could mobilize phosphate from insoluble sources and had growth-promoting properties on
Arabidopsis thaliana [103]. Therefore, one important role of glucosinolate hydrolysis products in the efficiency of biofumigation seems to be the potential to favor beneficial microbiota. While metham sodium treatment reduced soil microbial activity in pot experiments (300 µg/g sandy loam soil, pH 7.2, water holding capacity set to 45%, sampling after 3, 15, and 60 days at 23 °C), an increase in soil microbial activity and specific changes in ascomycetes strain abundance were reported after biofumigation with broccoli leaves in a laboratory experiment (15 mg homogenized broccoli leaves/g dry soil, water holding capacity set to 45%)
[82]. This effect was probably due to microbial responses to C-substrates, as the response to myrosinase treated broccoli was less pronounced
[82]. Organic amendments such as (defatted) seed meals add organic carbon and nitrogen into the soil that are easily available for soil microbial degradation
[94]. Moreover, biofumigation with rapeseed meal increased soil content of NO
3−, available P and available K
[104]. Thus, increased soil respiration rates as well as enzymatic activities (for example β-glucosidase) were observed in the first month after biofumigation with
Brassica carinata seed meal or sunflower seed meals, both obtained from a biofuel byproduct (3 t/ha applied on clay soil, tillage of soil)
[105]. Four weeks after biofumigation in field experiments using Indian mustard and radish, there was a shift in soil bacterial community and even more so in fungal community composition: some strains vanished while other strains were promoted due to biofumigation (sandy soil and sandy loamy sand, biofumigation at full flowering of cover crops)
[71]. In another field experiment, biofumigation with mustard (3.5 kg/m
2 of cut material) increased the biodiversity in bacteria and fungi compared to control and fumigated soils, as observed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)
[106]. Here, treatment with mustard having a glucosinolate content of 38.5 µmol/g DW (being mainly 3-butenyl glucosinolate) was similarly effective in the control of
Fusarium oxysporum compared to soil fumigation with hymexazol
[106]. Biofumigation with rapeseed meal reduced disease incidence of
Phytophthora blight and significantly increased yield in pepper in a field experiment (loam clay soil, pH 7.2, 0.4% w/w of rapeseed meal incorporated, irrigated after incorporation, covered with plastic foil), although no reductions in
Phytophthora capsici counts were observed. However, the biofumigation increased richness and bacterial diversity, while it decreased fungal diversity. Thus, changes in soil microbial community structure were hypothesized to be responsible for the disease suppression. The group further reported a negative correlation between soil bacterial diversity and disease incidence of
Phytophthora blight
[107]. In this experiment, biofumigation of soil pots with rapeseed meal (soil pH 7.2, 4 g rapeseed meal/kg dry soil; water 50% of water holding capacity, soil covered with plastic film after incorporation, incubation at 25 °C for 20 days) increased soil bacterial diversity, bacterial populations including
Bacillus and
Actinobacteria, and reduced
Phytophthora capsici and disease incidence
[107]. The use of integrated biofumigation with an antagonistic strain (
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) (application of strain after biofumigation) further increased disease suppression effectiveness of biofumigation
[107]. Repeated biofumigation with
B. carinata pellets (Biofence
®) and
Sinapis alba green manure (clay loam, pH 6.4, treatments over three growth periods) showed the highest increase in total bacteria, actinomycetes and
Pseudomonas ssp. in treated soils compared to soils treated with other non-
Brassica-based organic amendments
[108]. Further,
Pseudomonas ssp abundance was negatively correlated with the growth of the plant pathogen
Rhizoctonia solani [108]. Mowlick et al. suggested that
Clostridia, members of the
Firmicutes, play an important role in the control of spinach wilt.
Clostridia-induced organic acid release was discussed as a possible mode of action to explain the effects of biofumigation (
B. juncea) and
Avena sativa green manure treatment
[109].