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1 The aim of this overview on C. limon is a systematic review of scientific works and in-depth analyses of the latest investigations and promotions related to C. limon as a valuable plant species important in pharmacy, cosmetology and the food industry.
Agnieszka Szopa
 + 1123 word(s) 1123 2020-01-22 05:17:25 |
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Catherine Yang
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Klimek-Szczykutowicz, M.; Szopa, A.; Ekiert, H. Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/262 (accessed on 23 November 2024).
Klimek-Szczykutowicz M, Szopa A, Ekiert H. Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/262. Accessed November 23, 2024.
Klimek-Szczykutowicz, Marta, Agnieszka Szopa, Halina Ekiert. "Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/262 (accessed November 23, 2024).
Klimek-Szczykutowicz, M., Szopa, A., & Ekiert, H. (2020, January 26). Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/262
Klimek-Szczykutowicz, Marta, et al. "Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon." Encyclopedia. Web. 26 January, 2020.
Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/plants9010119

Citrus limon (lemon) is a species with valuable pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary (healthy food) properties. The valuable biological activity of C. limon is determined by its high content of phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids (e.g., diosmin, hesperidin, limocitrin) and phenolic acids (e.g., ferulic, synapic, p-hydroxybenzoic acids). The essential oil is rich in bioactive monoterpenoids such as D-limonene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene. Recently scientifically proven therapeutic activities of C. limon include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer and antiparasitic activities. In view of beneficial properties C. limon  is also used in the food industry and cosmetology. Attention should be pay on safety of use and potential phototoxicity of this raw materials.

lemon chemical composition biological activity cosmetic applications phototoxicity biotechnological studies

1. Introduction

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. is a tree with evergreen leaves and yellow edible fruits from the family Rutaceae. In some languages, C. limon is known as lemon (English), Zitrone (German), le citron (French), limón (Spanish), and níngméng, 檸檬 (Chinese).

The main raw material of C. limon is the fruit, particularly the essential oil and juice obtained from it. The C. limon fruit stands out as having well-known nutritional properties, but it is worth remarking that its valuable biological activities are underestimated in modern phytotherapy and cosmetology[1].

By cold pressing fresh outer parts of the C. limon pericarp (lat. exocarpium) an essential oil is obtained – the lemon oil (lat. Citrus limon aetheroleum, Limonis aetheroleum, Oleum Citri). The oil is colourless or yellow, and has a characteristic, strong lemon scent[2]. It is considered a pharmacopoeial raw material. Its monographs, entitled 'Limonis aetheroleum', are present in the European Pharmacopoeia 9th[3], American Pharmacopoeia[4], and in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India[5]. Another pharmacopoeial raw material obtained from C. limon is the outer part of the mesocarp – the flavedo. A monograph entitled 'Citrus limon flavedo' can be found in older editions of the French Pharmacopoeia, for example, in its 10th edition from 1998[6]. The fresh fruit of C. limon is officially listed for use in phytotherapy and in homeopathy in Germany. According to the German Commission D Monographs for homeopathic medicines, C. limon fresh fruits can be used for treating gingival bleeding and debilitating diseases[7]. C. limon also has a positive opinion in the European Commission’s Cosmetics Ingredients Database (CosIng) as a valuable plant for cosmetics production[8]. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) classified the pericarp, fruit, and leaves of C. limon as raw materials of plant origin in which there is presence of naturally occurring ingredients that may pose a threat to human health when used in the production of food and dietary supplements. EFSA has made a remark that the toxic substances in these raw materials are photosensitizing compounds belonging to the furanocoumarin group, including bergapten and oxypeucedanin[9]. In the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) list, C. limon essential oil and extracts are classified as safe products[10] .

The biological potential of C. limon is determined by its rich chemical composition. It has been determined not only for the whole fruit but also separately for the pericarp, juice, pomace, leaves, seeds and essential oil[11][12][13][14][15]. The most important group of bioactive compounds in both C. limon fruit and its juice, determining their biological activity, are flavonoids such as: flavonones – eriodictyol, hesperidin, hesperetin, naringin; flavones –  apigenin, diosmin; flavonols – quercetin; and their derivatives. In the whole fruit, other flavonoids are additionally detected: flavonols – limocitrin and spinacetin, and flavones – orientin and vitexin[11][12][14]. Phenolic acids were found both in the juice and fruit. There are mainly two such compounds in the juice – ferulic acid and synapic acid, and their derivatives. In contrast, the presence of p-hydroxybenzoic acid has been confirmed in the fruit. In the fruit, there are also coumarin compounds, carboxylic acids, carbohydrates, as well as amino acids, a complex of B vitamins, and what is particularly important – vitamin C (ascorbic acid)[11][12][14]. Another interesting group of compounds that are found in C. limon fruits are limonoids - limonin and nomilin. They mainly occur in citrus fruits, including lemons, in which they are found mainly in the seeds, pulp, and peel[16]. The main components of the essential oil are monoterpenoids e.g. D-limonene (69.9%), β-pinene (11.2%), γ-terpinene (8.21%), geranial (E-citral, 2.9%), neral (Z-citral, 1.5%), linalool (1.41%). In addition to terpenoids, the essential oil also contains linear furanocoumarins (psoralens) and polymethoxylated flavones[17][18][19].

2. Influence and application

C. limon fruit juice (lemon juice) has traditionally been used as a remedy for scurvy before the discovery of vitamin C[20] [20]. This common use of C. limon, known since ancient times, has nowadays been supported by numerous scientific studies. Other uses for lemon juice, known from traditional medicine (e.g. Romanian, Trinidad, Indian) include treatment of high blood pressure, common cold, sore throats, fevers, rheumatism and irregular menstruation. Moreover, the essential oil of C. limon is a known remedy for coughs[21][22][23][24].

Currently, valuable scientific publications focus on the ever wider pharmacological actions of C. limon fruit extract, juice and essential oil. They include studies of, for example, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-allergic, anti-obesity and hepatoregenerative activities. Additionally researches proved the significant of role C. limon in the prevention of diabetes and treatment of its symptoms, functioning on the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and skeletal systems and moreover in the treatment of menstrual disorders[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]. 

C. limon fruit and other lemon-derived raw materials, they find application in the food industry and food processing. The lemon fruit is used mainly as a fresh fruit, but it is also processed to make juices, jams, jellies, molasses, etc.[36][37]. The essential oil from lemon, i.e. pure isolated linalol and citral, is used mainly as a flavouring and natural preservative due to its functional properties (antimicrobial, antifungal, etc.)[38][39].

C. limon fruit extracts and essential oil, as well as the active compounds isolated from these raw materials are proving the possibilities of their use in cosmetology. Lemon-derived products have a positive effect on acne-prone skin that is easily affected by sunburn or mycosis. Scientific studies have shown a significant antioxidant and anti-aging effects of C. limon fruit extracts[26][40]. According to the CosIng database (Cosmetic Ingredient Database), C. limon can be used in twenty-three forms, e.g. oils obtained from various organs, in the form of extracts, hydrolates, powdered parts of the plant, wax and juice[8]. The most common activity defined by CosIng for the raw material of this species is to keep the skin in good condition, and to be used as corrigent[8].

Moreover, there has been some biotechnological research aimed at developing effective in vitro micropropagation protocols for C. limon[41][42].

The publication “Citrus limon (lemon) phenomenon – a review of the chemistry, pharmacological properties, applications in the modern pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries, and biotechnological studies” can be found here: https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/9/1/119

References

  1. Goetz, P; Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (Rutacées). Citronnier. Phytotherapie 2014, 12, 116-121.
  2. Millet, F.; Huiles essentielles et essence de citronnier (Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.). Phytotherapie 2014, 12, 89-97.
  3. European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines. European Pharmacopoeia 9.2, Lemon Oil; European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines: Strasburg, Germany, 2017.
  4. The United States Pharmacopeial Convention. United States Pharmacopoeia. National Formulary; The United States Pharmacopeial Convention: Rockville, MD, USA, 2009.
  5. Ministry of Health and Faily Welfare. Citrus limon (Lilnn) Burm. f. In The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (IV); Ministry of Health and Faily Welfare, Government of India: New Delhi, India, 2017.
  6. Agence Nationale de Sécurité du Médicament et des Produits de Santé, France. French Pharmacopoeia, 10th ed.; Citrus limon Flavedo; Agence Nationale de Sécurité du Médicament et des Produits de Santé: Saint-Denis, France, 1998.
  7. Monograph Citrus limon . German Commission D. Retrieved 2020-1-26
  8. Citrus limon . Cosmetic Ingredient Database (CosIng). Retrieved 2020-1-26
  9. Citrus limon . European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Retrieved 2020-1-26
  10. Citrus limon . U. S. Food & Drug Administration. Retrieved 2020-1-26
  11. Abad-García, B; Garmón-Lobato, S; Berrueta LA; Gallo, B; Vicente, F; On line characterization of 58 phenolic compounds in Citrus fruit juices from Spanish cultivars by high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode-array detection coupled to electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Talanta 2012, 99, 213-224, 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.05.042.
  12. Ledesma-Escobar, CA; Priego-Capote, F; Luque De Castro, MD; Characterization of lemon (Citrus limon) polar extract by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in high resolution mode. Journal of Mass Spectrometry 2015, 50, 1196-1205, 10.1002/jms.3637.
  13. Malacrida, CR; Kimura, M; Jorge, N; Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of citrus seed oils. Food Science and Technology Research 2012, 18, 399-404, 10.3136/fstr.18.399.
  14. Gattuso, G; Barreca, D; Gargiulli, C; Leuzzi, U; Caristi, C; Flavonoid composition of citrus juices. Molecules 2007, 12, 1641-1673, 10.3390/12081641.
  15. Czech, A; Zarycka, E; Yanovych, D; Zasadna, Z; Grzegorczyk, I; Kłys, S; Mineral content of the pulp and peel of various Citrus fruit cultivars. Biological Trace Element Research 2019, 193, 555-563, 10.1007/s12011-019-01727-1.
  16. Huang, S; Liu, X; Xiong, B; Qiu, X; Sun, G; Wang, X; Zhang, X; Dong, Z; Wang, Z; Variation in limonin and nomilin content in citrus fruits of eight varieties determined by modified HPLC. Food Science and Biotechnology 2018, 28, 641-647, 10.1007/s10068-018-0509-8.
  17. Russo, M; Bonaccorsi, IL; Costa, R; Trozzi, A; Dugo, P; Mondello, L; Reduced time HPLC analyses for fast quality control of citrus essential oils. Journal of Essential Oil Research 2015, 27, 1-9, 10.1080/10412905.2015.1027419.
  18. Raad A. Kaskoos; Essential oil analysis by GC-MS and analgesic activity of Lippia citriodora and Citrus limon. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants 2019, 22, 273-281, 10.1080/0972060x.2019.1603123.
  19. Owolabi, MS; Avoseh, ON; Ogunwande, IA; William, N; Ogungbo, R; Ogundajo, AL; Lawal, OA; Flamini, G; Chemical composition of Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck growing in Southwestern Nigeria: essential oil chemotypes of both peel and leaf of lemon. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products 2018, 6, 36-40.
  20. Mabberley, DJ; Citrus (Rutaceae): A review of recent advances in etymology, systematics and medical applications. Blumea Journal of plant Taxonomy and Plant Geography 2004, 49, 481-498.
  21. Papp, N; Bartha, S; Boris, G; Balogh, L; Traditional uses of medicinal plants for respiratory diseases in Transylvania. Natural Product Communications 2011, 6, 1459–1460, 10.1177/1934578x1100601012.
  22. Clement, YN; Baksh-Comeau, YS; Seaforth, CE; An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Trinidad. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2015, 11, 67, 10.1186/s13002-015-0052-0.
  23. Bhatia, H; Sharma, YP; Manhas, RK; Kumar, K; Traditional phytoremedies for the treatment of menstrual disorders in district Udhampur, J&K, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2015, 160, 202-210, 10.1016/j.jep.2014.11.041.
  24. Balogun, FO; Ashafa, AOT; A review of plants used in South African traditional medicine for the management and treatment of hypertension. Planta Medica 2018, 85, 312-334, 10.1055/a-0801-8771.
  25. Otang,WM; Afolayan, AJ; Antimicrobial and antioxidant effcacy of Citrus limon L. peel extracts used for skin diseases by Xhosa tribe of Amathole District, Eastern Cape, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 2016, 102, 46-49.
  26. Parhiz, H; Roohbakhsh, A; Soltani, F; Rezaee, R; Iranshahi, M; Antioxidant and anti-Inflammatory properties of the Citrus flavonoids hesperidin and hesperetin: An updated review of their molecular mechanisms and experimental models. Phytotherapy Research 2014 , 29, 323-331, 10.1002/ptr.5256.
  27. Kim, J; Jayaprakasha, GK; Uckoo, RM; Patil, BS; Evaluation of chemopreventive and cytotoxic effect of lemon seed extracts on human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells. Food and Chemical Toxicology 2012, 50, 423-430, 10.1016/j.fct.2011.10.057.
  28. Bhavsar, SK; Joshi, P; Shah, MB; Santani, DD; Investigation into hepatoprotective activity of Citrus limon .. Pharmaceutical Biology 2007, 45, 303-311, 10.1080/13880200701214995.
  29. Riaz, A; Khan, RA; Mirza, T; Mustansir, T; Ahmed, M; In vitro/in vivo effect of Citrus limon (L. Burm. f.) juice on blood parameters, coagulation and anticoagulation factors in rabbits.. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 2014, 27, 907-915.
  30. Tsujiyama, I; Mubassara, S; Aoshima, H; Hossain, SJ; Anti-histamine release and anti-inflammatory activities of aqueous extracts of citrus fruits peels. Oriental Pharmacy and Experimental Medicine 2012, 13, 175-180, 10.1007/s13596-012-0093-z.
  31. Murali, R; Saravanan, R; Antidiabetic effect of d-limonene, a monoterpene in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Biomedicine & Preventive Nutrition 2012, 2, 269-275, 10.1016/j.bionut.2012.08.008.
  32. Kim, MJ; Hwang, JH; Ko, HJ; Na, HB; Kim, JH; Lemon detox diet reduced body fat, insulin resistance, and serum hs-CRP level without hematological changes in overweight Korean women. Nutrition Research 2015, 35, 409-420, 10.1016/j.nutres.2015.04.001.
  33. Khan, RA; Riaz, A; Behavioral effects of Citrus limon in rats. Metabolic Brain Disease 2014, 30, 589-596, 10.1007/s11011-014-9616-2.
  34. Kimira, Y; Taniuchi, Y; Nakatani, S; Sekiguchi, Y; Kim, HJ; Shimizu, J; Ebata, M; Wada, M; Matsumoto, A; Mano, H; et al. Citrus limonoid nomilin inhibits osteoclastogenesis in vitro by suppression of NFATc1 and MAPK signaling pathways. Phytomedicine 2015, 22, 1120-1124, 10.1016/j.phymed.2015.08.013.
  35. Nie, YC; Wu, H; Li, PB; Luo, YL; Long, K; Xie, LM; Shen, JG; Su, WW; Anti-Inflammatory effects of naringin in chronic pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation in cigarette smoke-exposed rats. Journal of Medicinal Food 2012, 15, 894-900, 10.1089/jmf.2012.2251.
  36. Martí, N; Mena, P; Cánovas, JA; Micol, V; Saura, D; Vitamin C and the role of citrus juices as functional food.. Natural Product Communications 2009, 4, 677-700, 10.1177/1934578x0900400506.
  37. Kanmani, P; Extraction and analysis of pectin from Citrus peels: augmenting the yield from Citrus limon using statistical experimental design. Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment 2014, 5, 303-312, 10.5829/idosi.ijee.2014.05.03.10.
  38. Hamdan, D; Ashour, ML; Mulyaningsih, S; El-Shazly, A; Wink, M; Chemical composition of the essential oils of variegated pink-fleshed lemon (Citrus x limon L. Burm. f.) and their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. A Journal of Biosciences 2013, 68, 275-284.
  39. Espina, L; Somolinos, M; Ouazzou, AA; Condón, S; Gonzalo, D; Pagán, R; Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fruit juices by combined treatments of citrus fruit essential oils and heat. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2012, 159, 9-16, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.07.020.
  40. Valgimigli, L; Gabbanini, S; Berlini, E; Lucchi, E; Beltramini, C; Bertarelli, YL; Lemon (Citrus limon, Burm.f.) essential oil enhances the trans-epidermal release of lipid- (A, E) and water- (B6, C) soluble vitamins from topical emulsions in reconstructed human epidermis. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2012, 34, 347-356, 10.1111/j.1468-2494.2012.00725.x.
  41. Goswami, K; Sharma, R; Singh, PK; Singh, G; Micropropagation of seedless lemon (Citrus limon L. cv. Kaghzi Kalan) and assessment of genetic fidelity of micropropagated plants using RAPD markers. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants 2012, 19, 137-145, 10.1007/s12298-012-0148-0.
  42. Navarro-García, N; Morte, A; Pérez-Tornero, O; In vitro adventitious organogenesis and histological characterization from mature nodal explants of Citrus limon. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant 2016, 52, 161-173, 10.1007/s11627-015-9743-4.
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Marta Klimek-Szczykutowicz
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Agnieszka Szopa
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Halina Ekiert
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Update Date: 30 Oct 2020
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