Impact of Gliricidia sepium on Crop Performance: History
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Emmanuel Oladeji Alamu
,
Michael Adesokan
,
Segun Fawole
,
Busie Maziya-Dixon
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Tesfai Mehreteab
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David Chikoye

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp is a well-known agroforestry leguminous tree that provides multiple benefits in different agroecological zones. Its apparent versatility is seen in improving animal feed, cleaning environmental wastes, and healing inflammations. It was also found to have significant benefits in agroforestry due to its ability to enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and green manure. 

  • Gliricidia
  • agroforestry
  • intercropping
  • mulch
  • biochar

1. Introduction

Legume trees are essential in reforestation programs, soil preservation, and green manure. They were reported to have high growth capacity, providing ecosystem services such as biomass production, recycling of nutrients, nitrogen (N) fixation, and carbon (C) sequestration [1]. Using leguminous trees in biomass production in alley cropping systems shows excellent potential in enhancing agricultural production and sustainability [2]. They improve soil fertility, increase crop productivity, and ensure the sustainability of tropical agroecosystems through nitrogen fixation, shade provision, green manuring, and mulch production [3][4]. N-fixing leguminous trees and N-mineral fertilizers are used to recover heavily degraded soils [5]. Legume trees were also used for several other applications, including controlling pests and diseases, as supplements in animal feed, and as sustainable raw materials for electrical energy production [6][7][8][9].
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp (G. sepium) is a medium-sized legume tree native to Central America but also grows naturally in Santa Rosa and Veracruz, Mexico. G. sepium is from the Fabaceae family, the most prominent family in the plant world, and is mainly considered a source of relatively valuable plant protein [10]. It is sometimes called the “alfalfa of the tropics” because it has better water usage efficiency than alfalfa and may be used as forage by livestock [11]. It is a well-known multipurpose tree due to its ability to adapt well to various soils, including alkaline, acidic, sandy, heavy clay, and limestone [12]. However, it thrives best in medium-textured, well-drained, and fertile soils with near-neutral acidity [13]. Gliricidia was reported as a non-aggressive invader because it is a light-demanding species and unlikely to invade dense plant communities. However, it is often plagued with Aphis craccivora, which blackens the leaves and makes them fall prematurely [13]. The use of Gliricidia in agroforestry is due to its ability to adapt very well to a wide range of soils and a very high level of soil salt stress. The adaptation to soil salinity stress is seen in its ability to produce new leaves about two weeks after losing all leaves due to abrupt salinity stress [12]. G. sepium is a dominant crop for alley cropping in tropical and subtropical regions [3]. Its biochar application for the removal of caffeine in water and detoxification of coir pith was also reported [14][15], while Grygier et al. [10] recommended Gliricidia sepium as an unconventional source of oil, with oil yields similar to that of soybean (Glycine max). Furthermore, several scholars reported using Gliricidia leaves (Figure 1) and trees for anthelmintic purposes. The wound healing effect of Gliricidia leaves grown in Indonesia, and the Philippines was studied. The scholars found that the leaves contain flavonoids, saponins, and tannins, which act as anti-inflammatory agents, enhancing the healing process [9].
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Figure 1. Photo of Gliricidia sepium leaves.

2. Impact of Gliricidia sepium on Crop Performance and Crop Nutritional Properties

Gliricidia sepium tremendously impacted food crops’ yield and nutritional composition, especially maize, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

Table 1. Summary of the application of Gliricidia for improving crop quality.
Crop Gliricidia
Application Mode		 Gliricidia Application Effect Location Reference
Maize Intercropping Enhanced soil health and maize yield Malawi [16]
Maize Intercropping Soil fertility and maize yield improved Malawi [17]
Maize *** Improved food crops and household food security Malawi [18]
Maize Intercropping Yield enhanced Malawi [19]
Quality Protein Maize Intercropping Nutritional value improved Brazil [20]
Maize Intercropping Improved yield Brazil [21]
Maize Intercropping Improved yield Brazil [22]
Maize Intercropping Improved yield Brazil [23]
Maize Mulching Improved Yield Nigeria [24]
Sweet corn Leaf pruning Nitrogen uptake improved Malaysia [25]
Tomato Woody biochar Facilitated nutrient uptake and increased plant biomass Sri Lanka [26]
Cotton Intercropping Nutrient accumulation and biomass productivity was enhanced Malawi [27]
Cacao Intercropping Leaf longevity Indonesia [28]
Maize, soybean and groundnut Intercropping Improved yield and nutritional properties Zambia [29]
*** Review article.
Table 2. Application of Gliricidia to improve maize yield.
  Yield  
Crop Gliricidia Plot Sole Maize Plot Inorganic Fertilizer Plot Reference
Maize 5.52 t ha−1 1.48 t ha−1 NE [16]
Maize 597.67 kg acre−1 478.75 kg acre−1 NE [18]
Maize 3.62 t ha−1 2.73 t ha−1 NE [19]
Maize * 2.5 Mg ha−1(GA)/
2.6 Mg ha−1 (GC)		 0.4 Mg ha−1 0.6 Mg ha−1 [20]
Maize 5.618 kg ha−1 6.714 kg ha−1 NE [21]
Maize 5.21 Mg ha−1 3.03 Mg ha−1 2.81 Mg ha−1 [22]
Maize 1.41 t ha−1 0.63 t ha−1 2.19 t ha−1 [24]
Maize 4520 kg ha−1 1227 kg ha−1 5954 kg ha−1 [29]
* alley cropping; NE-not evaluated; GA—Gliricidia + Acacia; GC—Gliricidia + Clitoria.
Coulibaly et al. [18] found that adopting Gliricidia sepium as fertilizer trees in Malawi increased the value of food crops by 35%, positively affecting household food security. At the same time, it was also reported that Gliricidia sepium intercropped with maize in Malawi enhanced soil health renewal and maize yield and significantly increased the nutritional composition of the crop [16]. Makumba et al. [17] demonstrated the Gliricidia-maize intercropping system to be a suitable option for soil fertility improvement and maize yield increase in sub-Saharan Africa, where inorganic fertilizer use is minimal. They found that applying Gliricidia prunings increased maize yield three-fold over sole maize cropping without soil amendments and improved topsoil nutrients. Additionally, the use of Gliricidia leaves in alley cropping to improve the nitrogen uptake of sweet corn was reported [25]. G. sepium can improve nitrogen use efficiency, increase soil organic matter, and maintain the cations base, thereby enhancing maize grain yield in infertile tropical soil [23].
The potential of intercropping maize with Gliricidia to control weeds was evaluated [30][31][32]. The scholars observed that although maize-Gliricidia showed good potential in enhancing grain yield, it was not a viable option for weed control. However, hoeing was reported to be a better option. Although Gliricidia-maize intercropping was reported to increase maize yield, Sileshi et al. [33] evaluated the yield stability of maize–Gliricidia intercropping and fertilized monoculture maize. It was reported that maize yields remained more stable in maize–Gliricidia intercropping than in fertilized maize monoculture in the long term. However, average yields may be higher with complete fertilization. Therefore, considering the long-term yield stability and the accessibility of Gliricidia to low-income farmers, Gliricidia-maize intercropping is recommended. An agroecological study was conducted in Zambia in which the effect of the agroforestry system involved utilizing Gliricidia sepium to improve soil nutrients, crop yield, and nutritional properties of food crops. Gliricidia sepium was cultivated in alley cropping with maize, soybean, and groundnut. It enhanced the yield of the cultivated crops by more than twofold and improved the crops’ nutritional properties. Intercropping maize with soybean and groundnut with Gliricidia improved crop diversification, enhancing crop resistance to climate change [29].
Cotton and sunflower nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) accumulation and biomass productivity were enhanced by adding Gliricidia pruning mixed with cattle manure. In contrast, Gliricidia-cotton intercropping is a cost-effective option for smallholder cotton farmers [27][34]. The development of beans was favored when the soil was treated with extracts of G. sepium [35]. The insecticidal effect of G. sepium leaf extracts was demonstrated. This extract repelled insects from the plants, increased the overall yield of maize and stimulated the growth of tomato plants [36][37].
The application of Gliricidia in cocoa production was also reported [28][38][39][40]. In Indonesia, cacao plants were shaded with G. sepium, and it was reported that contrary to general belief, cacao bean yield was not decreased by shading. However, the shading of cacao plants resulted in greater leaf longevity due to reduced exposure of cacao to atmospheric drought [39].
The effect of G. sepium mulch from whole leaves and chopped leaves and branches on yields and the water use efficiency of carrot plants were investigated. It was found that G. sepium mulch from entire leaves and mineral fertilization led to higher yields and water use efficiency of the carrot plants [41]. As reported by Ilangamudali et al. [42], a study in Sri Lanka assessed the potential of using coconut-based G. sepium agroforestry systems to improve the soil fertility of degraded coconut lands. The study revealed that G. sepium replenished soil fertility of degraded coconut-growing soils by giving higher soil organic matter, total nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, and microbial activity. Additionally, in Sri Lanka, the effects of different mulching materials on growth, yield, quality parameters of ginger, and soil parameters were assessed. Soil treatment with Gliricidia mulch gave the maximum number of sprouted plants, the highest plant height, and the highest number of pseudostems per clump. The scholars concluded that Gliricidia is the best mulch for ginger cultivation in the low country intermediate zone of Sri Lanka [43]. Incorporating 75% nitrogen, 100% phosphorus, 50% potassium by chemical fertilizer, and 50% potassium via Gliricidia green leaf manuring improved soil fertility and yield of soybean cultivated in Vertisols [44].
Cassava genotype TMS 4(2)1425 was reported by Okon et al. [45] to respond positively to Glomus deserticola inoculation in conjunction with a mixture of Gliricidia sepium + Senna siamea mulch. The Gliricidia mulch significantly enhanced the yield of the cassava sample due to its ameliorating effects on soil structure and nutrient content. A G. sepium substrate formulated based on 50% mill compost with 50% Gliricidia sepium effectively produced yellow passion fruit seedlings with excellent vegetative growth rates [46].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/f14030635

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