Properties of Moringa Oleifera Seeds: History
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Contributor:
Naif Al-Jadabi
,
Mohamed Laaouan
,
Souad El Hajjaji
,
Jamal Mabrouki
,
Maria Benbouzid
,
Driss Dhiba

Because the seeds of Moringa Oleifera contain a water-soluble cationic coagulant protein, they are used as a primary coagulant in drinking water clarification and wastewater treatment through their ability to reduce the turbidity of treated water. These proteins are considered the most widely investigated plant-based coagulant, having been researched by several scholars.The seeds of Moringa Oleifera possess good coagulating properties comparable to commercial alum used in turbidity removal.

  • Moringa Oleifera
  • wastewater treatment
  • coagulation-flocculation

1. Introduction

We live on planet Earth, where more than 70% of its surface is covered with water, and the oceans occupy 97% of the Earth’s water (by volume). This leaves only 3% of the planet’s total freshwater. Regarding this fresh water, 65% is trapped in glaciers and in the ice caps of mountains, and 30.2% is groundwater, which is too costly to extract. As a result, only 1.3% of surface water of the volume available for human use of the total proportion of water on this planet remains [1][2]. Water is important in all domains of life (human, industrial, and agricultural), which are driven by socio-economic development and increasing population growth [3].
For this reason, there is a global concern about the possibility of obtaining clean and safe water [4], especially in arid and semi-arid developing countries where the provision of potable water is an enormous undertaking [5]. The quality of water and its treatment becomes a source of increasing concern, particularly where water quality is poor, as well as where proper treatment is lacking [6]. Furthermore, it has been estimated that the inefficiency of sanitation, polluted water, or lack of water is causing 80% of all diseases and sicknesses in the world [7]. These detrimental effects are more prominent especially in underdeveloped countries [8]. Nearly 90% of all diseases humans have are caused by microorganisms, which should motivate us to stop their activity [9]. Hence, the result of disease spread and increasing health problems of people leads to a high rate of early deaths correlated with the consumption of polluted water, which is considered an important issue worldwide [10]. In this century, achieving water recycling processes will be one of the main challenges to ensure a worldwide water supply [11]. This context allows for the development of scientific knowledge in the use of alternative coagulants. Three million people globally lack water and sanitation services, which has a negative impact on their quality of life and undermines their basic human rights. Consequently, the emergence of many diseases and the threat to health security place a heavy strain on economies [12]. Water is widely used in different sectors and especially in productive sectors such as urban supply, industry, livestock, and agricultural production, which has led to water overuse [13].
The protection of the environment from wastewater contaminants is very important [14]. Water and wastewater are contaminated with numerous colloidal solid particles that are difficult to settle, resulting in water turbidity and color change [15], which must be addressed using coagulants [16]. One of the biggest challenges in water treatment is removing hydrophobic colloids because they are typically present in high concentrations compared to other pollutants [17]. In this context, coagulation has been practiced since the earliest times in human history to reduce turbidity by removing these impurities [18] through sedimentation in both drinking water and wastewater treatment [19]. Thus lowering turbidity improves water quality [20][21]. The coagulants used in water treatment processes are classified as natural, inorganic, and synthetic organic polymers [16][22]. The use of natural coagulants has quite a long history [23]. Natural coagulants are plant-based and used to remove turbidity, and have been used by various civilizations and communities for at least 4000 years [24]. Recently, there has been increased interest in using natural coagulants [25], which are gaining interest in developing countries [26], for the treatment of water and wastewater [27]. This interest emerged due to the many problems created by using synthetic coagulants [28], such as their highcost and health-related issues [29]. Furthermore, environmental impacts are associated with inorganic/synthetic organic coagulants [30]. For example, aluminum sulfate, aluminum polychloride [31], and aluminum chloride [32] are among the most frequent inorganic coagulants used in the coagulation or flocculation processes. However, these have negative impacts on human health and the environment, as reported by Megersa et al. [21]. Moreover, it has been reported that alum produces a large volume of sludge [33]. In addition, its use reduces the pH of the treated water [34][35][36], it is not biodegradable [37], and it has a link to Alzheimer’s disease, as reported by Campbell et al. [38], Ribes et al. [39], Rondeau et al. [40], and Wang et al. [41]. Moreover, it possesses strong carcinogenic properties and is expensive [42].
The natural coagulation activity of seeds can be similar to or even better than alum [43]. Moreover, most people in rural communities tend to easily find available water sources, despite their low quality due to the high cost of treated water, and this exposes them to many waterborne diseases [29]. In the response to this problem, people have conducted this research on a natural coagulant that has the best properties, such as being low cost, effective, non-toxic, and having no significant effect on the pH of the water treated. Natural coagulants that are plant-based represent one renewable source in wastewater treatment because they have many positive properties such as being biodegradable, non-hazardous, widely available, and environmentally friendly [10].Their cost is low, a lesser quantity of sludge is produced after using them in water treatment [14], they have a wider effective dosage range in the flocculation process [10], and they are becoming increasingly more important in replacing chemical coagulants [24], as seen in most parts of India and some parts of Africa and China.They have been used in the treatment of water over the past 2000 years, and have been certified eco-friendly organic polymers of natural coagulants [23][44]. Moreover, these natural coagulants can be locally grown in developing countries because they are cost-effective [45]. Additionally, their production increases opportunities for employment by creating a new cash crop for farmers, especially in rural areas [46]. Basic coagulation mechanisms have been elucidated for Moringa Oleifera seeds by applying them in treating turbid water in 1995 [47]. Since then, there has been widespread interest in them [48], and arguably that the Moringa Oleifera tree is the most studied in the environmental scientific community as a natural coagulant [37]. Because the seeds of Moringa Oleifera contain a water-soluble cationic coagulant protein, they are used as a primary coagulant in drinking water clarification and wastewater treatment through their ability to reduce the turbidity of treated water [49]. These proteins are considered the most widely investigated plant-based coagulant [24][50][51][52], having been researched by several scholars [5].The seeds of Moringa Oleifera possess good coagulating properties comparable to commercial alum used in turbidity removal [53]. Their antimicrobial activity has also been studied in previous studies [6][53][54][55][56][57][58], as have their antifungal [59][60][61][62][63] and antiviral effects [53][54][55][56][57]. They also play a role as an antiparasitic, such as in Haemanthus contorts eggs [64][65]. To avoid defects associated with chemical and physical processes, such as high costs, the generation of toxic waste, and the use of toxic reagents in removing mineral contaminants of liquid waste, new methods have emerged [66] for removing heavy metals from wastewater [67], which has become a global concern for both the environment and human health [68]. The use of the seeds of Moringa Oleifera plays a role in the removal of pollution resulting from toxic metals (e.g., arsenic [69][70][71],copper, lead, cadmium, chromium [72], etc.).

2. Properties of Moringa Oleifera Seeds

Moringa Oleifera is a kind of tree widely used in medicinal applications and diverse pharmacological activities [63]. Moringa Oleifera seeds are characterized by a high rate of potassium, reaching up to 38.29% of the mineral content of the seeds, according to results obtained by X-ray fluorescence analysis [73]. These high levels of potassium are beneficial for addressing the decreased-potassium levels in patients with COVID-19, which is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus [74]. Furthermore, the seeds are used as antimicrobials [29][62][75]. Additionally, one report has shown that the difference in antimicrobial properties can be attributed to several parameters such as the age of the plant used, the freshness of the plant material, physical factors (water, temperature, and light), incorrect preparation of the plant, and contamination by field microbes, etc. [76][77]. Research has also shown that Moringa Oleifera seeds act as a natural coagulant, flocculant, and absorbent for the treatment of drinking water without any toxic effect on human health [54], they serve as vegetables and functional food [13], and they are also considered an important source of health-promoting phytochemicals and micronutrients [78][79]. Tannins and saponins were detected in ethanol extracts of Moringa Oleifera seeds according to a report by Nepolean et al. [80]. Tannins and alkaloids were found to be highly present using methanol as a solvent [81]. Phytochemical screening on the methanol extract of seeds of Moringa Oleifera is shown in Table 1. Furthermore, Moringa Oleifera seed ethanol (MSE) extract has shown to contain saponins, alkaloids, and flavonoids, as reported by Bukar and Oyeyi [82]. They found that the highest amount of total flavonoid reached 273.7% in ethanol extract (80%), while phenolics reached 395.4% in acetone extract (40%), which was fermented using Aspergillus Niger for 168h with initial humidity equal to 50% and 70%, respectively [83].
Table 1. The phytochemical screening on the methanol extract of seeds of Moringa Oleifera.
Constituents Results
[84] [85]
Carbohydrates + ±
Saponins ± ++
Tannins + ++
Terpenes +  
Resins NA ±
Alkaloids + ±
Flavonoids + ±
Cardiac glycosides + ±
Anthraquinones – –
Steroidal rings NA ±
Glycosides NA ±
(– = absent; ± = present in trace amount; + = present; ++ = present in appreciable quantity, NA = Non-available).
The content of oil from de-hulled seed (kernel) is approximately 42% of its total content, and this oil contains approximately 13% and 82% saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, respectively [86]. One study found that an increase in the temperature of the drying air led to greater volumetric contraction of grains of Moringa Oleifera and affected the final oil extraction yield [87]. The amount of total unsaturated fatty acids was more than 80% [88], while other studies found that it reached more than 76% (Lalas and Tsaknis) [89], 44% (Gu, Yang, and Wang) [90], and 78.69% (Delange et al.) [91]. Recent research found that the composition of fatty acids (%fatty acids) totaled 70.7%, 4.5%, and 18.0% monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and SFA, and saturated fatty acids, respectively [92]. The oil was found in some Egyptian reports analyzing Moringa Oleifera seeds to contain saturated acids (palmitic, stearic, and arachidic) (up to 12%),a large amount of fatty acids, and unsaturated acids, particularly an omega-9-Oleic (up to 76%) [93], while other studies found amounts totaling 71.60% [89], 74.50% [94], greater than 70% [90], and 70% [95].
Table 2 shows the typical content of oil in Moringa Oleifera seeds (fatty acid in Moringa Oleifera seeds). The oil extracted from the Moringa Oleifera seeds showed non-toxic effects [13][96], and high stability to oxidation rancidity [89]. An analysis of Moringa Oleifera seed oil of two cultivars in Argentina reported that the oil produced from both cultivars tested had practically identical fatty acid composition. Regarding monounsaturated fatty acids, omega 9 was discovered in both cultivars (18:1) (more than 70% of the total) [97]. A report showed in 2019 that the percentage of Oleic (18:1n-9) of three different sites (Ospina, La Rinco, and Carnero Beach of Santa Elena Province in Ecuador) reached 72.38, 75.46 and 75.52%, respectively [98]. This high level of Oleic acid content gives high stability to the oil of Moringa Oleifera seeds [99].
It has been suggested that regional conditions or harvesting practices of Moringa Oleifera seeds lead to differences in lipid content between 30% and 42% [100]. Further factors contributing to these differences include differences in the species, genetics of the plant, its cultivation, soil, region, state of ripening of the fruits, and the method of extraction and analysis [91].A report from 2009 showed that Moringa Oleifera seed extracts contained 39.3% and 37.6% of crude oil and crude proteins, respectively [101], while another study reported a total content level of 41% of oil extracted from Moringa Oleifera seeds [94]. A recent study found that seasonality has no significant effect on the yield of crude or refined oil [102]. The first report on the oil of Moringa Oleifera seeds showing the presence of pentadecanoic acid (C15: 0), carboxylic acid (C27: 0), and montanic acid (C28: 0) reaching 0.03% of the total content of the seed for each one of the three acids is cited here: [91]. It has been reported that Moringa Oleifera seed coagulation activity is not significantly affected by the presence of fatty acids [103]. So, there is no need to extract the oil from the seeds of Moringa Oleifera if they are used as coagulants [52][104]. Further, it was revealed through analyses of extracts of Moringa Oleifera seed oils that the retention of the oil could give added value because of the role played by the presence of some fatty acids (e.g., palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, cis-11-eicosenoic, and cis-11,14-eicosadienoic) at concentrations of 0.01% w/v that significantly inhibit the formation of S. aureus biofilm, as well as due to the potential benefit of unsaturated fatty acids for controlling the formation of biofilm and the virulence of S. aureus [105]. On the contrary, some studies have suggested that it is necessary to extract the oil from the seeds because the presence of oil would affect the activity of coagulation and heavy metal removal [43].
Table 2. The percent composition of fatty acid in the oil of Moringa Oleifera seeds.
Fatty Acids Reported Values %
[106] [86] * [88] [99] [89] [107] [108] [91] [101] [92] [98] [109] [110] [111]
a b c
Caprylic Acid (C8:0) - - 0.03 - 0.03 0.03 0.02 - - - - - - - - -
Lauric acid (C12:0) 0.1 Trace - - - - - 0.06 - 0.2 - - - - - -
Myristic acid (C14:0) 0.1 0.08 0.11 0.72 0.13 0.11 0.1 0.08 - 0.3 0.42 0.17 0.15 0.11 - -
Pentadecanoic (C15:0) - Trace - - - - - 0.03 - - - - - - - --
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 7.8 Trace 6.04 6.1 6.46 6.17 5.51 7.43 6.24 11.5 5.73 5.43 5.75 5.80 6.18 6.24
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 2.2 5.54 1.46 1.2 1.36 1.10 1.10 1.50 1.6 4.3 1.39 1.41 1.72 1.20 1.31 1.60
Heptadecanoicacid (C17:0) - - 0.09 - 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.15 - - - - - 0.086 - -
Stearic acid (C18:0) 7.6 5.42 4.14 4.6 5.88 4.77 5.86 4.01 4.71 2.3 5.40 4.12 3.95 5.80 4.01 4.71
Oleic acid (C18:1) 67.9 72.9 73.6 78.7 71.21 74.4 67.79 73.10 74.93 69.7 72.38 75.46 75.52 72.30 74.87 74.93
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 1.1 0.76 0.73   0.65 1.21 0.71 0.95 0.72 2.2 0.69 0.61 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.72
Linolenic acid (C18:3) 0.2 0.14 0.22 1.8 0.18 0.24 0.21 0.19   1 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.17 - -
Arachidic acid (C20:0) 4.0 3.39 2.76 2.3 3.62 3.51 3.78 2.48 3.09 1.2 3.14 2.74 2.68 3.70 2.69 3.09
Gadoleic acid (C20:1) 1.5 2.2 2.40   2.22 1.61 2.6 2.39 2.32 1.1 3.40 2.40 2.31 1.90 - 2.32
Heneicosanoicacid (C21:0) - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.067 - -
Behenic acid (C22:0) 6.2 6.88 6.73 4.5 6.41 6.16 6.81 5.84 5.33 1.5 5.56 5.68 5.90 6.50 5.43 5.33
Erucic acid (C22:1) - 0.14 0.14 - 0.12 0.14 0.11 0.13 -   - - - 0.73 - -
Docosadienoicacid (C22:2) - - - -   - - - -   - - - 0.065 - -
Lignoceric acid (C24:0) 1.3 0.92   - - - - 0.87 1.05 0.5 1.14 1.06 0.83 0.92 - 1.05
Nurvonic (C24:1) - Trace 1.08 - - - - - -   - - - - - -
Cerotic (C26:0) - - - - 1.18 1.08 0.98 0.06 -   - - - - - --
(*): Analysis: Thionville Laboratories, Inc. New Orleans, LA, USA (March 1994) Values in parentheses (Becker and Siddhuraju, unpublished). (-) Non-available. (a,b,c): refers to the fatty acids of Moringa seeds oils in three different sites (Ospina, La Rinco, and Carnero Beach of Santa Elena Province in Ecuador, respectively.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su15054280

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