First-generation (or typical) antipsychotics are effective in attenuating schizophrenia’s positive symptoms, mainly associated with acute episodes, and preventing psychotic relapse [4].

Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug to ever be approved for clinical application, with its use spreading worldwide between 1952 and 1955 [38]. It is mostly a dopamine and serotonin receptor antagonist, but it also has affinity for other receptors, which leads to several severe systemic side effects, including agitation, convulsions, difficulty breathing and swallowing, extreme sleepiness, fever, irregular heart rate, and low blood pressure [17,39]. Its lipophilic nature leads to it evidencing both poor aqueous solubility (predictably 0.00417 mg/mL) and poor permeability, which in turn results in variable and low oral absorption. Moreover, chlorpromazine holds a high protein-binding and extensive first-pass metabolism. These characteristics are responsible of a low oral bioavailability [17,39]. To tackle these issues, Baloch et al. formulated chlorpromazine into a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS). SNEDDS are mixtures of oils, surfactants and cosurfactants or cosolvents that spontaneously form a nanoemulsion when in contact with (diluted in) the gastrointestinal tract’s fluids [40]. All 3 formulas comprised Tween^® 85 (polysorbate 85-polyoxyethylene 20 sorbitan trioleate) as the hydrophilic surfactant and ethanol as cosolvent, and 2 of the formulas also had glycerol. The selected oil was different among the developed formulations, being either Triacetin (short-chain triglyceride), Captex^® 355 (medium-chain triglyceride, glyceryl tricaprylate/tricaprate) or olive oil + linseed oil (long-chain triglycerides, 1:2 w/w). Detailed quantities of each used ingredient are shown in Table 1. Drug strength was kept at 2% (w/w) for all formulations, which is 4796 times higher than chlorpromazine’s predicted aqueous solubility. SNEDDS’ droplet characteristics (after dilution) were 159–186 nm for droplet size, 0.27–0.33 for PDI, and −14.1 to −21.4 mV for zeta potential, with a pH between 7 and 7.5. Moreover, all SNEDDS were stable under accelerated conditions or storage for 3 months. Ex vivo permeation studies (rat intestine) showed that all SNEDDS had increased drug permeation when compared to a drug suspension, which was justified by the tight junctions’ opening effect of triglycerides that facilitates drug transport across the intestinal mucosa. Moreover the long-chain triglyceride formula showed the best performance, which suggests that the presence of oleic acid had a permeation enhancing effect. The in vivo pharmacokinetic studies (with rats; 2 mg drug/kg body weight) showed that the oral administration of all SNEDDS led to an at least 2-fold higher systemic bioavailability than the free drug suspension. The presence of a longer chain triglyceride seemed to improve the formulation’s performance once more, being responsible for the highest plasma area under the “drug concentration vs. time” curve (AUC) and maximum drug concentration (C_max). Nevertheless, there was no intravenous control group, which would have provided important data regarding the drug’s systemic bioavailability. Moreover, the drug was never quantified in the animals’ brain, nor was a pharmacodynamic study performed, and hence the potential of the developed formulations to allow the drug to reach the brain and/or have a therapeutic effect was left undetermined.

Haloperidol is a strong dopamine D2 receptor antagonist that was approved for clinical use in the 1960s [18,41,42]. It is currently available in oral and injectable drug preparations, but it has limited uptake across the blood brain-barrier, and a vast distribution to non-targeted sites, which leads to quite severe side effects, such as movement disorders (dystonia, tardive dyskinesia, akathisia and drug-induced Parkinsonism), sedation, weight gain, prolactin changes and cardiac events. Moreover, haloperidol undergoes high liver metabolization, resulting in low oral bioavailability, and low aqueous solubility (predictably 0.00446 mg/mL) [18,42]. In order to overcome such limitations, El-Setouhy et al. developed O/W nanoemulsions for intranasal delivery, containing Capmul^® MCM (medium chain mono- and di-glycerides), Tween^® 80 (polysorbate 80-polyoxyethylene 20 sorbitan monooleate), Span 20 (sorbitan monolaurate) and Transcutol^® P (diethylene glycol monoethyl ether), prepared by spontaneous emulsification. Additionally, the mucoadhesive nanoemulsion also contained Pemulen™ TR-2 (acrylates/C10–30 alkyl acrylate crosspolymer) (specific quantity in Table 2). Obtained drug strength was 8.5 mg/mL, which is more than 1900 times higher than haloperidol’s aqueous solubility. For the selected non-mucoadhesive formula, droplet size was 209.5 nm, but PDI was 0.402, which is a reasonably high value, hence reflecting the non-homogeneous nature of the formulation, while zeta potential was found to be −23.85 mV. This same formula was stable after a 12-month storage period (both under refrigeration and at room temperature). However, the mucoadhesive nanoemulsion was not characterized, which raises the question of whether it was stable, homogeneous, and even if it was in fact a nanoemulsion. The in vivo pharmacokinetic study (mice; 2 mg/kg), which was only performed for the mucoadhesive nanoemulsion, (which was not the one that was previously characterized), showed that its intranasal administration led to a more effective and faster brain drug delivery (higher brain C_max, with similar AUC, and lower “time to reach maximum drug concentration” (T_max)), suggesting the superiority of this route of administration for this drug delivery purpose. Additionally, intranasal delivery led to brain/blood ratios that were higher than 1 at all time-points (which did not happen with the intravenous group), suggesting higher efficacy and safety (lower desirable systemic distribution). The fact that the drug was located within lipophilic nanodroplets might have facilitated the direct nasal transmucosal transport to the brain, in which the presence of the mucoadhesive Pemulen™ TR2 helped overcome nasal mucociliary clearance. Nevertheless, a mucoadhesive nanoemulsion is hardly an ideal intravenous control, especially if it is too viscous (an issue that was not addressed in this study), and the intravenous administration of a drug solution would have been a more adequate control, also providing a comparison with a different and simpler formulation. Additionally, the administration of the same formulation through two different routes did not allow us to understand whether the formulation itself was more effective or safer than others (drug solutions or suspensions), but only that its intranasal administration was more effective in making the drug reach the brain than the intravenous. Still, the in vivo pharmacodynamic study (locomotor activity) further confirmed the effectiveness of the developed intranasal mucoadhesive nanoemulsion, which was very effective in causing motor suppression. Safety evaluation (rabbits; 0.5 mg/kg) suggested that the developed formulation was also safe, with the animals’ nasal mucosa showing no histopathological alterations after chronic administration.