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Psychology
Masturbation is defined as the manipulation of one’s own genital organs, typically the penis or clitoris, for purposes of sexual gratification. Masturbation frequency was positively associated with overall sexual function for women. This was moderated by relationship status, meaning that more frequent masturbation was associated with better orgasmic function and sexual satisfaction in single women, whereas the opposite was true for women who were in a relationship. For men, more frequent masturbation was associated with better erectile function for single men, and better ejaculatory latency but worse orgasmic function, intercourse satisfaction, and more symptoms of delayed ejaculation for men who were in a relationship. Lower sexual compatibility and sexual dysfunctions in the partner were associated with more frequent masturbation in both sexes. The associations between masturbation frequency and sexual function vary for single and partnered individuals, and are, for the latter group, further affected by sexual compatibility.
- Sexual Function
- Partners
- Masturbation
- Sexual Compatibility
1. Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual dysfunctions are a heterogeneous group of disorders typically characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in a person’s ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure [1]. They include, among other things, premature (early) ejaculation, delayed ejaculation, and erectile disorder for men as well as arousal disorder and orgasmic disorder for women [1]. Previous research shows that sexual dysfunctions are highly prevalent globally, affecting 10% to 52% of men and 25% to 63% of women [2,3,4,5].
A number of factors contribute to sexual dysfunctions, including individual, relationship, cultural, and religious factors, as well as medical factors [1]. Increased age may be a common cause, since people’s sexual response usually decreases as people grow older. Additionally, psychological distress, such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, and problems in the relationship are other central factors, leading to decreased libido and, thus, sexual dysfunctions [1,6]. For men, specifically, erectile disorder may be associated with biological factors (e.g., diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and lack of physical exercise) and substance use (e.g., smoking tobacco) [6,7]. For women, on the other hand, menopause and social-cultural factors (including restricted gender norms related to sexual desire and pleasure) are particularly predictive of female orgasmic disorder [1,5]. Sexual dysfunctions are often comorbid. Erectile disorder has been found to be related to premature ejaculation and male hypoactive sexual desire disorder, whereas female orgasmic disorder commonly co-occurs with sexual interest or arousal problems [8,9]. However, in most cases, the exact and conclusive causes of sexual dysfunctions are unknown [1].
2. Masturbation
Masturbation is defined as the manipulation of one’s own genital organs, typically the penis or clitoris, for purposes of sexual gratification [10]. The act is usually accompanied by sexual fantasies or erotic literature, pictures, or videos and may also include the use of mechanical devices (e.g., a vibrator) or self-stimulation of other body parts, such as the anus or nipples. Masturbation can involve a person exploring their body alone, but can also happen in the presence of another person, known as mutual masturbation.
Masturbation is a common sexual behavior. A US-based sample revealed that 38% of women and 61% of men aged between 18 and 60 had engaged in masturbation over the preceding year [11]. A national survey conducted on the British general population aged 16 to 44 years reported 73% percent of men and 37% of women having masturbated in the past month [12]. A similar prevalence has been found in other regions, such as Australia and Portugal [13,14]. Somewhat lower frequencies have been found in, for example, China, where 13% of women and 35% of men reported any masturbation in the preceding year [15].
Given that masturbation is a common sexual behavior across the lifespan, it is crucial to understand its role in sexual functioning, sexual satisfaction, and its general impact on psychological well-being. Historically, masturbation has been prohibited and considered a sin in many religions and cultures [16,17]. As masturbation is a form of nonprocreative sex, it has been seen as a vice because of its sole focus on pleasure, and it has also been believed to weaken the body or trigger the loss of sexual potency [16,18]. Only in recent decades has a more objective perspective indicated that masturbation is an important pathway for adolescents to learn about their bodies and sexual responsiveness [19].
3. Desire Level and Sexual Compatibility with Partners
In general, people’s sexual desire is linked to the frequency of masturbation, yet for people who are in a relationship, frequent masturbation could conceivably reduce their desire for partnered sex. However, individuals with a high sexual desire level may happily engage in partnered sex in addition to frequent masturbation. Two theoretical frameworks have been proposed to explain how masturbation relates to partnered sex. One is the compensatory model positing that masturbation is a substitute for unfulfilled desire for partnered sex [20,21]. A negative correlation between masturbation and partnered sex would be a consequence of this model. Another is the complementary model, which argues that masturbation enhances or accompanies partnered sex, even suggesting that partnered sex may have a positive impact on additional sexual activities, including masturbation [8,21]. A positive correlation between masturbation and partnered sex would follow from this model. Research has found support for both theoretical models. For example, British men who engaged in a lower frequency of partnered sex revealed a higher prevalence of masturbation, supporting the compensatory function of masturbation [12]. On the contrary, in line with the complementary model, Carvalheira and Leal found that Portuguese women who masturbated took more initiatives in sexual activities, leading to a higher frequency of partnered sex [14]. Similar results were found among British women, as masturbation was reported more by those who also had a higher frequency of vaginal sex [12]. This implies that perhaps different models are prevalently at work for women and men. Indeed, Regnerus et al. suggested that masturbation might be a compensation for men who are not satisfied with their partnered sex, but it might be complementary for satisfied women or even lead them to want more partnered sex [22]. A generally high desire level (or even a personality trait such as openness to new experience) could also lead to both high levels of masturbation and partnered sex, resulting in a pattern of results compatible with the complementary model.
Sexual relationship quality beyond only frequency may also impact masturbation. It has been found that the frequency of masturbation depends on how content the person is with the quality of their social sex, rather than the absolute frequency of sex [22]. Additionally, in Goldey et al.’s research differentiating between solitary and partnered sexual pleasure, participants reported similar definitions of pleasure [23]. However, they understood those sexual activities differently in that autonomy—being able to experience sex according to their own preferences—was considered crucial in solo sex. On the other hand, trust, bond, and closeness to the partner—which may decide if their partner is attractive and if they could discuss sex openly with their partner—were emphasized in conceptualizing partnered sexual pleasure [23]. Other incompatibility issues may be related to masturbation frequency as well. For example, the right amount of foreplay and the partner’s willingness to meet the other’s sexual preferences and needs seem especially crucial in partnered sex. Taken together, masturbation may have both positive and negative impacts on people’s sexual satisfaction, depending on the desire level and sexual compatibility between partners.
4. Desensitization
In addition to mere influences on the frequency of different sexual activities, masturbation may have impacts on sexual function. One potential impact is desensitization, where very frequent masturbation may make the sexual organs less sensitive to sexual stimulation. Additionally, if one constantly masturbates in a specific way, this specific masturbatory pattern may not be easily replicated during partnered sex. In fact, in a study investigating the relationship between male masturbation and erectile disorder, it was found that very frequent and idiosyncratic masturbation was associated with erectile dysfunction and coital anejaculation [24]. In another study looking at a Chinese sample, compared with men who reported no masturbatory behavior, 25% of the sample who masturbated reported a gradual extension of ejaculation time [25]. This means that repeated masturbation may result in less responsiveness towards stimulation, which therefore results in more intensive stimulation being required to reach ejaculation. This may be beneficial in delaying fast ejaculation, but it may instead result in delayed ejaculation problems. A similar process could make reaching orgasm during partnered sex more difficult for women as well.
5. Lowering Orgasmic Threshold
Contrary to the idea that very frequent masturbation may lead to desensitization, we suggest that for individuals who have had consistent difficulties reaching orgasm, masturbation may function to lower their threshold for reaching orgasm. We suggest that this may happen because the individual gains an improved understanding of how their body reacts to sexual pleasure and through the brain circuitry responsible for orgasm being reinforced making reaching the orgasmic threshold easier over time. Orgasmic latency refers to the time needed from the start of sexual stimulation to orgasm, which is closely related to orgasmic function. A study found that women having orgasmic difficulties during partnered sex had longer orgasmic latencies than women without orgasmic difficulties [26]. Hence, masturbation practice may shorten orgasmic latency and improve orgasmic function. In support of this, evidence has shown that masturbation had positive effects on orgasmic experience during partnered sex for women if these two types of activities shared alignment, namely, if they used similar stimulation [27]. This means that partnered sex corresponding with masturbation techniques can improve orgasmic capacity, which essentially optimizes arousal, orgasmic likelihood, and overall sexual satisfaction for women. However, reasons for masturbating seemed to moderate its effects. Women who cited “sexual pleasure” as their primary reason for masturbation indicate better orgasmic satisfaction, whereas those who cited “to decrease sexual tension” or “to overcome anxiety” as their primary reasons for masturbation reported more orgasmic difficulty [28]. This suggests that it is important to understand people’s motivations behind their masturbatory behaviors and their real unmet needs. Different motives for sexual activities may incur positive or negative consequences.
6. Interoceptive Awareness Increases
In men with premature ejaculation, a lack of interoceptive awareness has been suggested as one possible contributing factor [29]. Interoceptive awareness refers to “the ability to identify, access, understand, and respond appropriately to the patterns of internal signals” [30] (p. 3) [31]. During masturbation, the person has the possibility to proceed at their own pace and regulate the amount of sexual stimulation. Additionally, they can turn their focus inwards to their bodily reactions as opposed to attending to their partner. These factors may contribute to increased interoceptive awareness of the cues that precede orgasm and may provide the opportunity for enhanced control over orgasm. This suggests yet another pathway through which frequent masturbation, specifically in men, could be expected to result in longer orgasmic latency during partnered sex.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/sexes3020018
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