The Evolution of Food Security: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Subjects: Health Care Sciences & Services
Contributor:
Morteza Akbari

Food security is one of the most challenging topics globally; however, the concept of food security has taken on additional dimensions that are general and are less detailed. Recognizing the factors that directly and indirectly affect food security will enable future researchers to focus on and study important topics. One of the important indicators of sustainable development is eliminating hunger and ensuring sustainable food security. International organizations and the WHO have various programs and measures to achieve this goal. The consequences of food insecurity, including hunger, malnutrition, and its direct or indirect effects on health and quality of life, have always been considered.

  • food security
  • bibliometric review
  • co-citation analysis

1. Introduction

Concerns about food security arose very clearly a few years after World War Two (1939–1945), and some scholars point to Malthus’ research (1798) as the beginning of studies on populations’ food security [1]. Responding to the growing demand for food is, without a doubt, the most fundamental issue and the most striking demographic and environmental challenge [2]. The growing world population and nature’s limited ability to produce food are at the root of growing food security concerns around the world [3]. There is a general concern that the size of the population may someday exceed the global food supply [2]. Food insecurity may result from the unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power [4][5], improper distribution and improper use of food [6]. Poverty [7], natural catastrophes [6][8][9], political violence, and geopolitical factors contribute to a disproportionate distribution of food globally [10].
With the evolution of the concept of food security, many studies have been conducted to define [11][12], measure and evaluate food security [13][14][15], analyze the factors affecting it [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23], and investigate the relationship between environment and food production [3][8], dietary diversity and food security [24][25], and new strategies of food security [6][26]. Therefore, the literature associated with food security is inevitably expansive [27].

2. Effective Factors

2.1. Socio-Economic Factors

Socio-economic factors affect the level of access to food [28]. Some researchers have used different methods to study the association between food security and household income [15][29], food prices [30], nutritional status, and dietary diversity [15][31], physical and mental health status [32][33], poverty [34][28], gender and household size [35], family knowledge about food and nutrition [36], food behaviors [37], and demographic factors [38][39]. A review of these studies suggests that most studies’ primary focus is on economic variables such as household income and purchasing power [40]; however, the role of factors such as eating behaviors, nutrition knowledge, and education has received less attention. Therefore, more research is needed on learning methods and food-related knowledge in individuals through experimental interventions and longitudinal studies [37]. On the other hand, the concept of food security encompasses very broad and accurate assessments of the causal direction and type of relationship between different variables and their impact on food security and requires consideration of the interaction of ecological, socio-economic, political, and cultural factors [41]. For example, purchasing power depends on pricing policies, income, subsidies, and household welfare. Thus, rising prices for many people in the community, especially in the lower-income bracket, can reduce physical access to food, variety, and diet quality [42].

2.2. Political Factors

Given that ensuring food security is of high importance for many governments and societies [15], it is necessary to examine it from the dimension of politics and governance. A growing body of research has studied the association between food security and food policy [43], food sovereignty [42][40][44], governance [45][46], self-sufficiency [44][47], food production and distribution systems [13][48][49], and global trade [15]. Due to its important role in ensuring food security at different levels, governance has received more devotion from scholars in this field, since the root of many factors affecting food security, such as political, economic, social, and environmental components, can be sought in governance [50]. That is why, in recent years, food sovereignty has become one of the most important elements of governance [51]. However, current knowledge about food governance is fragmented. Therefore, complementing this area of literature with alternative governance perspectives in future research may strengthen the current understanding of food security governance [46].

2.3. Cultural Factors

The impact of culture on food security is a complex and challenging issue that has received less attention [52]. Indeed, the dynamics and relative importance of cultural influences on food security are not well studied. Nevertheless, physical and economic access, preparation, and selection of food baskets are influenced by culture, eating habits, and lifestyle [53][38][52]. Instead, culture can lead the way to better implement food security policies [52].

2.4. Environmental Factors

Climate change as one of the key factors affecting food security has been considered by many researchers [18][54]. There is a dual connection between climate change and food security [55][56]. Climate change affects all dimensions of food security, such as physical and economic access, dietary patterns and food use, and the stability and flexibility of food systems [57]. Striving for food security in terms of climate change has far-reaching implications for endangered communities [58]. In addition, efforts to ensure food security by increasing agriculture and expanding agricultural land lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and land-use changes [16][59]. Alternatively, by affecting production and supply, climate change can lead to rising prices of food and agriculture, which in turn worsens the global hunger crisis [60]. In addition to climate change, the decline in agricultural production for various reasons, including the prevalence of pests and diseases, endangers the livelihood and welfare of farmers and producers and related businesses, especially small-scale farmers, foresters, ranchers, and fisheries [19][61].

3. Coping Strategies (Actions, Plans, and Policies)

One of the important indicators of sustainable development is eliminating hunger and ensuring sustainable food security [62]. International organizations such as the UN, FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and the WHO have various programs and actions measurements to achieve this goal [61]. Studies in this field have provided practical strategies by focusing on each period and geographical area’s specific conditions and requirements. Coping strategies can be classified into four dimensions: food quantity and quality improvement, food safety, and socio-cultural and environmental acceptance [63][64][65][66].
A group of studies in the field of food security, one that has a long history and extensive volume, has examined various strategies, programs, and policies to improve economic and physical access to food. The starting point of this group of studies is to address the issue of poverty and strategies to combat food insecurity in various societies, especially in developing countries. Researchers have tried to use practical strategies by relying on food supply through domestic production or imports and improving people’s purchasing power, especially vulnerable groups. Various approaches have been considered to increase the performance and efficiency of the agricultural sector to ensure sustainable food security. Focusing on the existing agricultural lands with priority given to climate-friendly agriculture, transfer of new high-yielding technologies to these croplands [67], integrated water resources management, increase in product efficiency, and agricultural waste management [49] are examples of the strategies mentioned in these studies.
Many farmers worldwide use the maintenance of biodiversity as it provides both food security and sustainable livelihoods for users and greater resilience to the dangers of climate change or other natural shocks [68]. However, to feed the growing population, innovative and acceptable ways of combining biodiversity conservation and food production must be identified. To this end, one study [69] has considered the development of fisheries and aquaculture. A limited number of studies have observed the relative influence of urban agriculture on sustainable food security [70][71], the approach of diversification and the use of micronutrients to improve dietary quality [15][72]. However, despite the importance of nutritional quality in sustainable food security, limited studies have been conducted to improve nutrition quality, especially for disadvantaged and low-income areas [73][64].
However, global studies have confirmed the negative impact of chemical residues on soil and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and their toxic effects on humans [74]. Some researchers have turned their attention to the issue of safe and healthy food. Their main purpose is to increase people’s access to health services and health care along with food security [75][76][77][78]. However, there are still serious concerns about the overuse of pesticides and chemical contaminants and the development of genetically modified foods that need to be carefully studied [65].
Other studies have focused on socio-cultural and environmental acceptability. In addition to discussing the physical and economic improvement of food, food hygiene and various strategies in opposition to socio-cultural values (consumer acceptance) have been proposed [79][80].
A review of studies shows that due to researchers’ efforts and participation in various fields such as economics, agriculture, sociology, nutrition, and medicine, the literature on food security has become richer over time. There are still many questions that determine the future direction of food security programs. For example, food insecurity measures are generally defined at the household level, not for individuals [14][53][81][35]. Some studies have attempted to measure the food security of particular groups such as children and pregnant women [33][82]. Instead, depending on how the food distribution system in different regions affects food security, the proposed measures and strategies will be different. The USA has an advanced food distribution system that allows food prices to be lower than other high-income countries; as a result, the rate of food insecurity in this country is much lower. Therefore, research on improving the food distribution system to deal with food insecurity, especially in underdeveloped or less developed areas, can be pursued [83].
Furthermore, it is essential to pay attention to the research needs and priorities in different areas. According to the World Map on Food Security in 2020, many regions are located in high-risk zones. Given the widespread effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is estimated that this epidemic will decrease access to food [84] and increase the number of hungry people in the world to 840 million by 2030 [85]. In this regard, policies related to social protection, increasing purchasing power, and making healthy diets affordable for the most vulnerable populations are a priority [86].

4. Impacts and Outcomes

The consequences of food insecurity, including hunger, malnutrition, and its direct or indirect effects on health and quality of life, have always been considered [87]. A group of studies has evaluated the effects and consequences of hunger and food insecurity on physical, mental, and social health [32][83][88]. These studies suggest that food shortages are one of the dimensions of the individuals’ pervasive vulnerability to a wide range of physical, psychological, and social problems among households struggling with economic constraints. People who do not have enough access to healthy food are significantly more likely to face issues such as chronic heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, major depression, and anxiety [89][90][91][92][29][93]. Alternatively, continuing the cycle between food insecurity and various diseases will lead to decreases in job productivity, learning capacity, and ability to grow physically, mentally, and intellectually [15][92]. However, most research on food insecurity has relied on cross-sectional data. This is partly due to the lack of longitudinal data that households and their food security status follow over time [20][92][94][83]. Therefore, to understand the long-term effects of food insecurity, the association between food security, policy, income, consumption instability, and other variables should be examined. It should also be considered how food insecurity is transmitted from childhood to adulthood and its long-term effects on adults’ health and human capital [83]. The Panel Study of Income Dynamics, Fragile Families and Child Well Being, and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey, are some exceptional examples, both of which have multiple reports of food insecurity over time.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14063634

References

  1. Rowntree, B.S.; Orr, J. Food, Health and Income. Report on a Survey of Adequacy of Diet in Relation to Income. Econ. J. 1936, 46, 749.
  2. Jambo, Y.; Alemu, A.; Tasew, W. Impact of small-scale irrigation on household food security: Evidence from Ethiopia. Agric. Food Secur. 2021, 10, 21.
  3. Kidane, L.; Kejela, A. Food security and environment conservation through sustainable use of wild and semi-wild edible plants: A case study in Berek Natural Forest, Oromia special zone, Ethiopia. Agric. Food Secur. 2021, 10, 29.
  4. Elbushra, A.A.; Ahmed, A.E. Food Security in Sudan: A Historical Analysis of Food Availability. Iraqi J. Agric. Sci. 2020, 51, 422–431.
  5. Khanna, S.K. Food Availability, Food Security, and Maternal Mental Health. Ecol. Food Nutr. 2020, 59, 1–2.
  6. Anghinoni, G.; Anghinoni, F.B.G.; Tormena, C.A.; Braccini, A.L.; Mendes, I.D.C.; Zancanaro, L.; Lal, R. Conservation agriculture strengthen sustainability of Brazilian grain production and food security. Land Use Policy 2021, 108, 105591.
  7. Jenderedjian, A.; Bellows, A.C. Rural poverty, violence, and power: Rejecting and endorsing gender mainstreaming by food security NGOs in Armenia and Georgia. World Dev. 2021, 140, 105270.
  8. Chen, L.; Chang, J.; Wang, Y.; Guo, A.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Q.; Zhu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Xie, Z. Disclosing the future food security risk of China based on crop production and water scarcity under diverse socioeconomic and climate scenarios. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 790, 148110.
  9. Pakravan-Charvadeh, M.R.; Mohammadi-Nasrabadi, F.; Gholamrezai, S.; Vatanparast, H.; Flora, C.; Nabavi-Pelesaraei, A. The short-term effects of COVID-19 outbreak on dietary diversity and food security status of Iranian households (A case study in Tehran province). J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 281, 124537.
  10. Nabuuma, D.; Ekesa, B.; Faber, M.; Mbhenyane, X. Community perspectives on food security and dietary diversity among rural smallholder farmers: A qualitative study in central Uganda. J. Agric. Food Res. 2021, 5, 100183.
  11. Pinstrup-Andersen, P. Food security: Definition and measurement. Food Secur. 2009, 1, 5–7.
  12. Maxwell, S.; Frankenberger, T.R. Household Food Security: Concepts, Indicators, Measurements: A Technical Revies; Ifad Unicef: New York, NY, USA, 1992; p. 293.
  13. Barrett, C.B. Measuring Food Insecurity. Science 2010, 327, 825–828.
  14. Webb, P.; Coates, J.; Frongillo, E.A.; Rogers, B.L.; Swindale, A.; Bilinsky, P. Measuring Household Food Insecurity: Why It’s So Important and Yet So Difficult to Do. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 1404S–1408S.
  15. Coates, J. Build it back better: Deconstructing food security for improved measurement and action. Global Food Security 2013, 2, 188–194.
  16. Campbell, B.M.; Vermeulen, S.J.; Aggarwal, P.K.; Corner-Dolloff, C.; Girvetz, E.; Loboguerrero, A.M.; Ramirez-Villegas, J.; Rosenstock, T.; Sebastian, L.; Thornton, P.K.; et al. Reducing risks to food security from climate change. Glob. Food Secur. 2016, 11, 34–43.
  17. Tscharntke, T.; Clough, Y.; Wanger, T.C.; Jackson, L.; Motzke, I.; Perfecto, I.; Vandermeer, J.; Whitbread, A. Global food security, biodiversity conservation and the future of agricultural intensification. Biol. Conserv. 2012, 151, 53–59.
  18. Masipa, T.S. The impact of climate change on food security in South Africa: Current realities and challenges ahead. Jàmbá J. Disaster Risk Stud. 2017, 9, 7.
  19. Ali, A.; Erenstein, O. Assessing farmer use of climate change adaptation practices and impacts on food security and poverty in Pakistan. Clim. Risk Manag. 2017, 16, 183–194.
  20. Abdullah; Zhou, D.; Shah, T.; Ali, S.; Ahmad, W.; Din, I.U.; Ilyas, A. Factors affecting household food security in rural northern hinterland of Pakistan. J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 2019, 18, 201–210.
  21. Ericksen, P.J.; Ingram, J.S.I.; Liverman, D.M. Food security and global environmental change: Emerging challenges. Environ. Sci. Policy 2009, 12, 373–377.
  22. Ding, Q.; Chen, X.; Hilborn, R.; Chen, Y. Vulnerability to impacts of climate change on marine fisheries and food security. Mar. Policy 2017, 83, 55–61.
  23. Yahaya, I.; Pokharel, K.P.; Alidu, A.-F.; Yamoah, F.A. Sustainable agricultural intensification practices and rural food security. Br. Food J. 2018, 120, 468–482.
  24. Gupta, N.R.; A Freedman, D. Food security moderates relationship between perceived food environment and diet quality among adults in communities with low access to healthy food retail. Public Health Nutr. 2021, 24, 2975–2986.
  25. Lamarche, B.; Brassard, D.; Lapointe, A.; Laramée, C.; Kearney, M.; Côté, M.; Bélanger-Gravel, A.; Desroches, S.; Lemieux, S.; Plante, C. Changes in diet quality and food security among adults during the COVID-19–related early lockdown: Results from NutriQuébec. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2021, 113, 984–992.
  26. Aryee, S.N.D.; Owusu-Adjei, D.; Osei-Amponsah, R.; Skinner, B.; Sowatey, E.; Sargent, C.A. Sustainable genomic research for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Agric. Food Secur. 2021, 10, 8.
  27. Cooper, M.W.; Brown, M.E.; Niles, M.T.; ElQadi, M.M. Text mining the food security literature reveals substantial spatial bias and thematic broadening over time. Glob. Food Secur. 2020, 26, 100392.
  28. Dharmasena, S.; Bessler, D.A.; Todd, J. Socioeconomic, Demographic and Geographic Factors Affecting Household Food Purchase and Acquisition Decisions in the United States as a Complex Economic System. In Proceedings of the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, USA, 31 July–2 August 2016.
  29. Cook, J.T.; Frank, D.; Berkowitz, C.; Black, M.M.; Casey, P.H.; Cutts, D.B.; Meyers, A.; Zaldivar, N.; Skalicky, A.; Levenson, S.; et al. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Adverse Health Outcomes among Human Infants and Toddlers. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 1432–1438.
  30. Morrissey, T.W.; Jacknowitz, A.; Vinopal, K. Local Food Prices and Their Associations With Children’s Weight and Food Security. Pediatrics 2014, 133, 422–430.
  31. Swindale, A.; Bilinsky, P. Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance III Project (FANTA). 2006. Available online: https://www.fantaproject.org/monitoring-and-evaluation/household-dietary-diversity-score (accessed on 5 December 2021).
  32. Whitaker, R.C.; Phillips, S.M.; Orzol, S.M. Food Insecurity and the Risks of Depression and Anxiety in Mothers and Behavior Problems in their Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatrics 2006, 118, e859–e868.
  33. Minaie, M.; Movahedi, A.; Motlagh, A.D.; Abdollahi, Z.; Djazayery, A. Association of Socioeconomic Status and Food Security with Anthropometric Indices Among 2-5-year-old Urban Children in Eight Different cities in Iran. Int. J. Prev. Med. 2019, 10, 173.
  34. Headey, D.; Ecker, O. Rethinking the measurement of food security: From first principles to best practice. Food Secur. 2013, 5, 327–343.
  35. Oduniyi, O.S.; Tekana, S.S. Status and Socioeconomic Determinants of Farming Households’ Food Security in Ngaka Modiri Molema District, South Africa. Soc. Indic. Res. 2020, 149, 719–732.
  36. Fadare, O.; Amare, M.; Mavrotas, G.; Akerele, D.; Ogunniyi, A. Mother’s nutrition-related knowledge and child nutrition outcomes: Empirical evidence from Nigeria. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0212775.
  37. Worsley, A. Nutrition knowledge and food consumption: Can nutrition knowledge change food behaviour? Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 11, S579–S585.
  38. Ruel, M.T. Animal Source Foods to Improve Micronutrient Nutrition and Human Function in Developing Countries Operationalizing Dietary Diversity: A Review of Measurement Issues and Research Priorities 1,2. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 3911–3926.
  39. FAO. The State of Food Insecurity in the World Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises 2010 Key Messages; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2010; ISBN 9789251066102.
  40. Lang, T.; Barling, D. Food security and food sustainability: Reformulating the debate. Geogr. J. 2012, 178, 313–326.
  41. Peng, W.; Berry, E.M. The Concept of Food Security. Encycl. Food Secur. Sustain. 2019, 2, 1–7.
  42. Shaw, D.J. World Food Security A History Since 1945; Palgrave Macmillan: London, UK, 2007; Volume 27, ISBN 9780230553552.
  43. Maxwell, S. Food security: A post-modern perspective. Food Policy 1996, 21, 155–170.
  44. Patel, R. Food sovereignty. J. Peasant. Stud. 2009, 36, 663–706.
  45. Gowd, K.K. Network governance, food security, and public service delivery: Functioning of Chhattisgarh’s Centralized Online Real-time Electronic Public Distribution System (CORE-PDS). J. Public Aff. 2020, e2549.
  46. Candel, J.J.L. Food security governance: A systematic literature review. Food Secur. 2014, 6, 585–601.
  47. Wittman, H. Food Sovereignty: A New Rights Framework for Food and Nature? Environ. Soc. 2011, 2, 87–105.
  48. Ericksen, P.J. Conceptualizing food systems for global environmental change research. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2008, 18, 234–245.
  49. Foley, J.A.; Ramankutty, N.; Brauman, K.A.; Cassidy, E.S.; Gerber, J.S.; Johnston, M.; Mueller, N.D.; O’Connell, C.; Ray, D.K.; West, P.C.; et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 2011, 478, 337–342.
  50. Pahl-Wostl, C. Governance of the water-energy-food security nexus: A multi-level coordination challenge. Environ. Sci. Policy 2019, 92, 356–367.
  51. Júnior, H.D.A. The politics of food: The global conflict between food security and food sovereignty. J. Consum. Cult. 2020, 20, 366–370.
  52. Alonso, E.B.; Cockx, L.; Swinnen, J. Culture and food security. Glob. Food Secur. 2018, 17, 113–127.
  53. Coates, J.; Frongillo, E.A.; Rogers, B.L.; Webb, P.; Wilde, P.; Houser, R. Commonalities in the Experience of Household Food Insecurity across Cultures: What Are Measures Missing? J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 1438S–1448S.
  54. De Faria, A.C.F.P.; Berchin, I.I.; Garcia, J.; Back, S.N.B.; Guerra, J.B.S.O.D.A. Understanding food security and international security links in the context of climate change. Third World Q. 2016, 37, 975–997.
  55. Schmidhuber, J.; Tubiello, F.N. Global food security under climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 19703–19708.
  56. Wheeler, T.; von Braun, J. Climate Change Impacts on Global Food Security. Science 2013, 341, 508–514.
  57. Füssel, H.-M. How inequitable is the global distribution of responsibility, capability, and vulnerability to climate change: A comprehensive indicator-based assessment. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2010, 20, 597–611.
  58. Lobell, D.B.; Burke, M.B.; Tebaldi, C.; Mastrandrea, M.D.; Falcon, W.P.; Naylor, R.L. Prioritizing Climate Change Adaptation Needs for Food Security in 2030. Science 2008, 319, 607–610.
  59. Powlson, D.; Gregory, P.; Whalley, R.; Quinton, J.; Hopkins, D.; Whitmore, A.; Hirsch, P.; Goulding, K. Soil management in relation to sustainable agriculture and ecosystem services. Food Policy 2011, 36, S72–S87.
  60. FAO. Climate change and food security. Agric. For. 2020, 66, 197–210.
  61. FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO. Food Security and Nutrition in the World the State of Building Climate Resilience for Food Security and Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy; IFAD: Rome, Italy; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; WFP: Rome, Italy; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018; ISBN 9789251305713.
  62. Pinstrup-Andersen, P.; Pandya-Lorch, R. Food security and sustainable use of natural resources: A 2020 Vision. Ecol. Econ. 1998, 26, 1–10.
  63. Jennings, S.; Stentiford, G.D.; Leocadio, A.M.; Jeffery, K.R.; Metcalfe, J.D.; Katsiadaki, I.; Auchterlonie, N.A.; Mangi, S.C.; Pinnegar, J.; Ellis, T.; et al. Aquatic food security: Insights into challenges and solutions from an analysis of interactions between fisheries, aquaculture, food safety, human health, fish and human welfare, economy and environment. Fish Fish. 2016, 17, 893–938.
  64. Qaim, M. Role of New Plant Breeding Technologies for Food Security and Sustainable Agricultural Development. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy 2020, 42, 129–150.
  65. Bawa, A.S.; Anilakumar, K.R. Genetically modified foods: Safety, risks and public concerns—a review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 50, 1035–1046.
  66. Soussana, J.-F.; Lutfalla, S.; Ehrhardt, F.; Rosenstock, T.; Lamanna, C.; Havlík, P.; Richards, M.; Wollenberg, E.; Chotte, J.-L.; Torquebiau, E.; et al. Matching policy and science: Rationale for the ‘4 per 1000—Soils for food security and climate’ initiative. Soil Tillage Res. 2019, 188, 3–15.
  67. Tilman, D.; Balzer, C.; Hill, J.; Befort, B.L. Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 20260–20264.
  68. Sunderland, T. Food security: Why is biodiversity important? Int. For. Rev. 2011, 13, 265–274.
  69. Thilsted, S.H.; Thorne-Lyman, A.; Webb, P.; Bogard, J.R.; Subasinghe, R.; Phillips, M.J.; Allison, E. Sustaining healthy diets: The role of capture fisheries and aquaculture for improving nutrition in the post-2015 era. Food Policy 2016, 61, 126–131.
  70. Zulfiqar, F.; Shang, J.; Yasmeen, S.; Wattoo, M.U.; Nasrullah, M.; Alam, Q. Urban agriculture can transform the sustainable food security for urban dwellers in Pakistan. Geojournal 2021, 86, 2419–2433.
  71. Opitz, I.; Berges, R.; Piorr, A.; Krikser, T. Contributing to food security in urban areas: Differences between urban agriculture and peri-urban agriculture in the Global North. Agric. Hum. Values 2016, 33, 341–358.
  72. Fanzo, J.; Hunter, D.; Borelli, T.; Mattei, F. Diversifying Food and Diets: Using Agricultural Biodiversity to Improve Nutrition and Health; Routledge: London, UK, 2013; ISBN 9780203127261.
  73. Béné, C.; Arthur, R.; Norbury, H.; Allison, E.; Beveridge, M.; Bush, S.; Campling, L.; Leschen, W.; Little, D.; Squires, D.; et al. Contribution of Fisheries and Aquaculture to Food Security and Poverty Reduction: Assessing the Current Evidence. World Dev. 2016, 79, 177–196.
  74. Aktar, W.; Sengupta, D.; Chowdhury, A. Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: Their benefits and hazards. Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2009, 2, 1–12.
  75. FAO. The State of Food Insecurity in the World; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2015; Volume 178, ISBN 9789251087855.
  76. FAO; IFAD; Unicef; WFP; WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017: Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2017; ISBN 9789251098882.
  77. World Health Organization; FAO. Assuring Food Safety and Quality; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2003.
  78. Lu, Y.; Song, S.; Wang, R.; Liu, Z.; Meng, J.; Sweetman, A.; Jenkins, A.; Ferrier, R.C.; Li, H.; Luo, W.; et al. Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China. Environ. Int. 2015, 77, 5–15.
  79. Henchion, M.; Hayes, M.; Mullen, A.M.; Fenelon, M.; Tiwari, B. Future Protein Supply and Demand: Strategies and Factors Influencing a Sustainable Equilibrium. Foods 2017, 6, 53.
  80. Verbeke, W. Consumer acceptance of functional foods: Socio-demographic, cognitive and attitudinal determinants. Food Qual. Preference 2005, 16, 45–57.
  81. Shariff, Z.M.; Khor, G.L. Household food insecurity and coping strategies in a poor rural community in Malaysia. Nutr. Res. Pr. 2008, 2, 26–34.
  82. Moafi, F.; Kazemi, F.; Siboni, F.S.; Alimoradi, Z. The relationship between food security and quality of life among pregnant women. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018, 18, 319.
  83. Gundersen, C.; Ziliak, J.P. Food Insecurity Research in the United States: Where We Have Been and Where We Need to Go. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy 2018, 40, 119–135.
  84. O’Hara, S.; Toussaint, E.C. Food access in crisis: Food security and COVID-19. Ecol. Econ. 2021, 180, 106859.
  85. WFP. Hunger Map 2020-Chronic Hunger; WFP: Rome, Italy, 2020; p. 35.
  86. FAO. Food Security and Nutrition in the World; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2020; ISBN 978-92-5-109888-2.
  87. Campbell, C.C. Food Insecurity: A Nutritional Outcome or a Predictor Variable? J. Nutr. 1991, 121, 408–415.
  88. Hadley, C.; Crooks, D.L. Coping and the biosocial consequences of food insecurity in the 21st century. Am. J. Phys. Anthr. 2012, 149, 72–94.
  89. Seligman, H.K.; Laraia, B.A.; Kushel, M.B. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Chronic Disease among Low-Income NHANES Participants. J. Nutr. 2010, 140, 304–310.
  90. Vozoris, N.T.; Tarasuk, V.S. Household Food Insufficiency Is Associated with Poorer Health. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 120–126.
  91. Townsend, M.S.; Peerson, J.; Love, B.; Achterberg, C.; Murphy, S.P. Community and International Nutrition Food Insecurity Is Positively Related to Overweight in Women 1,2. J. Nutr. 2001, 136, 1738–1745.
  92. Jyoti, D.F.; Frongillo, E.A.; Jones, S.J.; Al, J.E.T. Community and International Nutrition Food Insecurity Affects School Children’ s Academic Performance, Weight Gain, and Social Skills 1–3. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 2831–2839.
  93. Weiser, S.D.; Young, S.; Cohen, C.R.; Kushel, M.; Tsai, A.; Tien, P.C.; Hatcher, A.; Frongillo, E.A.; Bangsberg, D.R. Conceptual framework for understanding the bidirectional links between food insecurity and HIV/AIDS. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 94, 1729S–1739S.
  94. Jones, A.D.; Ngure, F.M.; Pelto, G.; Young, S.L. What Are We Assessing When We Measure Food Security? A Compendium and Review of Current Metrics. Adv. Nutr. Int. Rev. J. 2013, 4, 481–505.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback