Traffic-Related PM Accumulation by Vegetation of Urban Forests: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Subjects: Environmental Sciences
Contributor:
Filip Chylinski

In terms of the process of air purification, a lot of attention has been devoted to trees and shrubs. Little attention has been paid to herbaceous vegetation from the lower forest layers. Urban forests are often located on the outskirts of cities and surround exit roads where there is heavy traffic, generating particulate matter (PM) pollution. 

  • air pollution
  • particulate matter
  • herbaceous plants
  • mosses
  • shrubs
  • trees

1. Introduction

Urbanisation is a process that causes many negative modifications in the city environment, such as temperature increase (up to 3–10 °C, Urban Heat Island effect) and soil and atmospheric pollution, particularly of traffic origin (nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone, particulate matter—PM10 and PM2.5) [1][2][3]. The health effects of exposure to air pollution related to traffic (TRAP—traffic-related air pollution) have been thoroughly studied [4][5][6][7]. A significant negative relationship between human health and particulate matter (PM) has been found [7][8]. Due to its strong, adverse health effects and high concentration, especially in urban areas, PM is ranked first among air pollutants that threaten health and life by the WHO [5]. Especially dangerous is small PM, which poses a great threat to human health and life [7][8]. In the case of PM2.5 (or smaller PM) it is difficult to determine a safe level below which there are no adverse health effects [5]. Reports from the World Health Organization indicate that long-term exposure to PM pollutants leads to shorter life expectancy [5]. Exposure to PM pollution may cause respiratory irritation, coughing, breathing problems, worsening of asthma symptoms, decreased lung function and in extreme situations heart rate disturbance, and even heart attack or premature death in people with respiratory and circulatory problems [9].
The degrees and types of pollution are diversified in European countries [10]. Transport emissions are one of the main global sources of pollution, including particulate matter (PM) in urban areas [11][12], which also holds true in Poland [13]. The roadside concentrations of PM decrease with the distance from the road; however, pollution emitted by transport vehicles can be present in the air even 50–100 m from the road source [14][15]. The common opinion is that road PM has a maximum range of several dozen meters (up to 100 m) in terrain, not limited by physical barriers [16]. Conversely, Wu et al. [17] showed that in Macao (China), over the total measured distance from the road (0–228 m), the maximum decreases of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 were only 7%, 9%, and 10% of the maximum occurring at 2 m from the road, respectively. Transport vehicles emit various dangerous air pollutants, e.g., exhaust fumes; however, the largest share in the pollution emitted from roads is non-exhaust road emissions [11][18]. Non-exhaust sources account for 90% of PM10 and 85% of PM2.5 from traffic [18] and are the result of tire wear, brake wear, road surface wear, and resuspension of road dust [19][20].
Global strategic action, considering sustainable development, adaptation to climate warming, and the mitigation of pollutants (including air pollution), has focused on a green economy [21], comprising the creation of green infrastructure (GI) in urban areas. Urban ecosystems are typically fragmented areas, where natural spaces are adjacent to residential, industrial, or business zones, crisscrossed by roads and sidewalks, and belong to the “green infrastructure” of the city. Urban forests are one of the basic patches of “green infrastructure”, performing biological diversity functions according to European Union law [22]. The urban forest is usually a natural space with vegetation, including mosses, herbaceous plants, shrubs and tree layers in a city [23]. With the development of urbanisation, the ecological value of urban forests, which improve urban environmental quality, have become important [24][25]. Urban forests occupy almost 120,000 ha in Polish cities [26]. Generally, the flora of urban forests is more disturbed than in forests located outside of the city [27] because of the urbanisation process [3][28], but these forests still serve many positive ecological functions as reservoirs of biodiversity of flora and fauna and in their role as shaping the main ecological corridors of the city [25][29].
Plants are currently the only effective tool to reduce PM air pollution in larger areas, such as big urban agglomerations [30]. Quantifying the amount of PM that deposits and accumulates on different plant species was studied by Popek et al. [31], Mo et al. [32], Chen et al. [33], and Przybysz et al. [34]. It was confirmed by these authors that plants serve as natural filters; however, every plant species has a different ability to accumulate PM. Most studies are focused on parks, roadside vegetation, street trees, hedges, shrubs, green walls, and green roofs located in city centres, the most representative and densely populated places, where they mitigate pollution impacts. The places with the most polluted air in cities are, however, located elsewhere, e.g., on routes leading out of cities and industrial areas [35]. Urban greenery in these locations is the most important and often the only barrier between very high PM pollution and inhabited areas [34]. Despite the fact that researchers have developed successful algorithms for air pollution spreading [36][37], there is still a lack of such models for plant communities, especially for urban forests. A holistic understanding and improvement of the efficiency of urban greenery in places with the most polluted air may be critical in reducing the negative impact of PM on city dwellers. The research must take into account that urban green areas (including urban forests) have diversified vertical and horizontal structures of vegetation. For this reason, The researchers innovative approach is to assess the effectiveness of PM accumulation by studying all of the vegetation growing on polluted exit roads from a big European city.

2. Traffic-Related PM Accumulation by Vegetation of Urban Forests

PM is mainly the result of anthropogenic processes in cities [27]. here, the researchers analysed the accumulation of PM from a city’s exit road and its distribution into the urban forest. The studied urban forest had a zonal structure. The highest number and cover of herbaceous plants was represented by synanthropic and grass species in the first two zones (No. 1 and No. 2), located near the source of transport pollution. The plant species composition in zones 3, 4, and 5 were more typical for fresh coniferous forests, which means that the habitat was more “natural”, with less anthropogenic impacts. When designing vegetation barriers to mitigate near-road air pollution, zones of urban greenery characterised by different structures of vegetation, including herbaceous plants and mosses, are rarely taken into the account; the greatest emphasis is placed only on trees and shrubs [38][39][40][41]. However, for safety (better visibility, avoiding accidents) and space reasons, trees and high shrubs cannot grow in the immediate vicinity of roads and intersections. Consequently, where trees cannot be planted, PM emitted from the road may be dispersed and transferred to new locations [41][42][43][44] or accumulated by herbaceous plants and grasses [45]. The presence of trees can in turn lead to elevated PM concentrations close to the road because high vegetation acts as a dam for polluted air [43][44]. In some cases PM dispersion can be interpreted as a favourable phenomenon, as it leads to lower PM concentration in the air at the place of its emission [43][46]. Conversely, PM that has not been adsorbed on any physical barrier may be relocated to new locations, which are perceived as clean since they are devoid of PM sources. It seems that a much safer solution would be PM accumulation and its permanent retention on plants growing in the immediate vicinity of the road. The critical problem to be addressed is finding plants that will be able to tolerate very difficult growing conditions (salinity, drought, pollution, soil degradation, and compotation), grow along the roads, not pose a threat to road users, and effectively accumulate PM from the air. The results of this work demonstrate that more attention should be paid to herbaceous plants. Many perennial herbaceous plants can tolerate a close proximity to roads. Herbaceous plants, especially those that are relatively big in size, tend to have deep root systems and, as resource-conserving species, invest more in their defence and storage mechanisms [47]. In this study, herbaceous plants were shown to grow in areas where airborne PM concentrations were significantly high (5 and 10 times higher than at the forest edge). These plants were the most exposed to the toxic effects of air pollutants and constituted the first physical barrier (filter for air pollution) between the road and cleaner air. Herbaceous vegetation turned out to be effective at PM accumulation. PM accumulation by herbaceous perennial plants is a consequence of their location, which is as close as possible to emission sources (1–10 m from the road), but also their morphology and canopy structure. The high accumulation of PM by plants growing in the immediate vicinity of the emission sources is a well-described phenomenon [48][49]. Many herbaceous plants are covered with hairs and a thick waxy coating, which are the features that determine the effective accumulation of PM [50][51]. Here, the reseachers analysed the leaves of Achillea millefolium, Plantago major, and Hieracium pilosella, which are covered with hairs. The high proportion of grasses (mowed rarely or not at all) in the assessed plant community was responsible for the high density and porosity of the plant filter. The high efficiency of PM accumulation by herbaceous plants was previously shown by Przybysz et al. [46], Weber et al. [50], Speak et al. [52], and Janhäl [53], while the ability of grasses to accumulate PM from the air was demonstrated by Przybysz et al. [34]. Unmoved herbaceous plant communities are typically tall enough (30–50 cm at least), yet permeable and dense enough to act as an effective air filter near the source of roadway emissions. In order to exploit the phytoremediation potential of herbaceous plants fully, it is worth limiting the mowing of roadside vegetation, especially in locations where aesthetics are less important, as for example, the city exit road studied in this work. It has already been shown that the structure and location of greenery near pollution emission sources has a much greater impact on PM accumulation potential than the biodiversity and species composition of plant communities [34]. This suggests that even a spontaneous roadside herbaceous community can have a positive impact on the air quality near roads.
The first line of trees accumulates (per unit of leaf area, not the whole plant) significantly less PM than herbaceous perennials. This is a surprising result, as until now street-adjacent trees were seen as the only element of urban greenery having a real impact on limiting air pollution with PM [54][55]. In this work, the higher efficiency of PM accumulation by herbaceous plants compared to trees is attributed to their shorter distance from the road, which was the only PM source in the area. Possibly, herbaceous plants filtered the polluted air emitted from the road before it reached the trees. Since the air pollutants were emitted close to the ground, and the herbaceous plants were right next to the road, they could significantly reduce PM dispersion and transport. Conversely, the trees grew just 10 m away from the road, which is relatively close to the emission source; thus, they should accumulate PM efficiently, especially considering their height (at least a few meters) and planting density. The high concentration of PM in the air between the road and the first row of trees shows that, despite the very effective accumulation of PM by herbaceous plants, the air was still polluted, and the amount of PM deposited on shrubs and tree leaves should be higher. Another explanation may be the re-suspension of PM temporarily accumulated on shrubs and trees by wind and rain. Wind and rain can remove significant amounts of PM from the leaf surface [34][44][53][56][57]. Re-suspended PM returns to the environment and can pollute the air again. It seems that herbaceous plants growing under and close to the trees most probably also accumulate PM re-suspended from taller vegetation. It can be assumed that herbaceous plants growing along the road should adhere to the first row of trees, so that they could accumulate PM re-suspended from trees and shrubs. Under trees and shrubs, especially near the roadside, there should be no hardened surfaces (pavements, bicycle paths, parking lots), because they cause further re-suspension of PM. This is another piece of evidence that herbaceous plants (preferably tall and unmown) play a very important role in removing PM from the air and should be a permanent element of urban greenery along roads. If possible, lawns should be replaced by meadows. Lawns offer fewer ecosystem services (biodiversity, food for pollinators, habitat for invertebrates) and require higher maintenance costs than a meadow [58]. In addition, lawns require mowing, which results in additional air pollutant emissions [59].
A new and very interesting finding of this study is the increasing accumulation of PM on leaves inside the forest, despite the very low concentration of PM in the forest (20 and 50 m from the road). Previous studies have indicated that PM accumulation on plants decreases with increasing distance from the edge of the forest/park [49]. Popek et al. [49], however, studied a large city park with lower planting density and the presence of numerous wide footpaths, which resulted in greater ventilation and air movement. The small amount of PM that reached the interior of the park did not have to be accumulated by the plants, but could be carried somewhere else. The trees and shrubs in this park were also exposed to rain and wind. In the present study, the dense canopy of tall trees constituted an insulating layer for air pollutants, including PM. Once PM was transferred deeper into the forest, it was trapped there due to little/no air movement. Most probably, most of the PM that entered the forest was accumulated by forest vegetation and then retained for a long period of time. The plant samples in the forest were collected at a height of 1.5 m; therefore, the analysed plant material was exposed to rain and wind only to a minimal extent. PM was not regularly washed off the surface of the leaves, as happened at the edge of the forest. Moreover, the increased accumulation inside the forest mainly concerns the smallest PM and the most detrimental to health (0.2–10 µm). On the contrary, the accumulation of PM by herbaceous plants and mosses decreased with increasing distance from the road, and it was significantly lower inside the forest. It is probable that before the PM fell by gravity onto lower vegetation, it was accumulated and retained by trees and shrubs. The presence of a dense forest close to the road caused the PM concentration in the air between the road and the first row of trees to be very high, often exceeding the permissible standards. The results obtained in this study support the finding of Vos [60], who showed that trees can increase PM concentrations along the road. Tong et al. [43] argue that, unlike trees, lawns (and possibly other low vegetation) lead to the dispersion of pollutants into the air, consequently lowering the concentration of PM. The researchers are of the opinion that in order to combat air pollution generated by road transport effectively, roadside greenery must be diverse and have a layered structure. A mixture of relatively tall herbaceous plants should be grown along the roadside in areas where the presence of shrubs and trees is not possible. The task of the usually underestimated herbaceous vegetation is to capture PM from the air immediately after its emission. Shrubs and trees, in turn, act as a barrier against the uncontrolled spread and accumulation of PM that has not been deposited on herbaceous plants present in zones 1 and 2. The first rows of trees should be relatively porous so as to enable PM transport into the forest, where it will be permanently accumulated by trees and shrubs. For the above reason, the area between the road and the first rows of trees should be inaccessible to human activity, e.g., bicycle and walking paths should always be at least a few rows of trees away.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14052973

References

  1. Haddad, N.M.; Brudvig, L.A.; Clobert, J.; Davies, K.F.; Gonzalez, A.; Holt, R.D.; Lovejoy, T.E.; Sexton, J.O.; Austin, M.P.; Collins, C.D.; et al. Habitat Fragmentation and Its Lasting Impact on Earth’s Ecosystems. Sci. Adv. 2015, 1, e1500052.
  2. Patarkalashvili, T. Urban Forests and Green Spaces of Tbilisi and Ecological Problems of the City. Ann. Agrar. Sci. 2017, 15, 187–191.
  3. Referowska-Chodak, E. Pressures and Threats to Nature Related to Human Activities in European Urban and Suburban Forests. Forests 2019, 10, 765.
  4. Health Effects Institute (HEI). Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects; HEI: Boston, MA, USA, 2010; pp. 5–44.
  5. World Health Organization (WHO). Review of Evidence on Health Aspects of Air Pollution-REVIHAAP Project; WHO Regional Office for Europe: Bonn, Germany, 2013; pp. 12–126.
  6. Tong, Z.; Baldauf, R.W.; Isakov, V.; Deshmukh, P.; Max Zhang, K. Roadside Vegetation Barrier Designs to Mitigate Near-Road Air Pollution Impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 541, 920–927.
  7. Hime, N.J.; Marks, G.B.; Cowie, C.T. A Comparison of the Health Effects of Ambient Particulate Matter Air Pollution from Five Emission Sources. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1206.
  8. Zinia, N.J.; McShane, P. Ecosystem Services Management: An Evaluation of Green Adaptations for Urban Development in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2018, 173, 23–32.
  9. Xing, Y.-F.; Xu, Y.-H.; Shi, M.-H.; Lian, Y.-X. The Impact of PM2.5 on the Human Respiratory System. J. Thorac. Dis. 2016, 8, E69–E74.
  10. European Environment Agency (EEA). The European Environment—State and Outlook 2020: Knowledge for Transition to a Sustainable Europe. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/2020 (accessed on 10 December 2021).
  11. Pant, P.; Harrison, R.M. Estimation of the Contribution of Road Traffic Emissions to Particulate Matter Concentrations from Field Measurements: A Review. Atmos. Environ. 2013, 77, 78–97.
  12. Nawrot, N.; Wojciechowska, E.; Rezania, S.; Walkusz-Miotk, J.; Pazdro, K. The Effects of Urban Vehicle Traffic on Heavy Metal Contamination in Road Sweeping Waste and Bottom Sediments of Retention Tanks. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 749, 141511.
  13. Dzikuć, M.; Adamczyk, J.; Piwowar, A. Problems Associated with the Emissions Limitations from Road Transport in the Lubuskie Province (Poland). Atmos. Environ. 2017, 160, 1–8.
  14. Weijers, E.; Khlystov, A.; Kos, G.; Erisman, J. Variability of Particulate Matter Concentrations along Roads and Motorways Determined by a Moving Measurement Unit. Atmos. Environ. 2004, 38, 2993–3002.
  15. Wang, J.; Chan, T.; Ning, Z.; Leung, C.; Cheung, C.; Hung, W. Roadside Measurement and Prediction of CO and PM2.5 Dispersion from On-Road Vehicles in Hong Kong. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2006, 11, 242–249.
  16. Zhu, Y.; Hinds, W.C.; Kim, S.; Shen, S.; Sioutas, C. Study of Ultrafine Particles Near a Major Highway with Heavy-Duty Diesel Traffic. Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 4323–4335.
  17. Wu, Y.; Hao, J.; Fu, L.; Wang, Z.; Tang, U. Vertical and Horizontal Profiles of Airborne Particulate Matter Near Major Roads in Macao, China. Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 4907–4918.
  18. Timmers, V.R.; Achten, P.A. Non-Exhaust PM Emissions from Electric Vehicles. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 134, 10–17.
  19. Thorpe, A.; Harrison, R.M. Sources and Properties of Non-Exhaust Particulate Matter from Road Traffic: A Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 400, 270–282.
  20. Penkała, M.; Ogrodnik, P.; Rogula-Kozłowska, W. Particulate Matter from the Road Surface Abrasion as a Problem of Non-Exhaust Emission Control. Environments 2018, 5, 9.
  21. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Annual Report 2011; UNEP Division of Communications and Public Information: Nairobi, Kenya, 2012.
  22. Maes, J.; Domenech, F.N.; Zulian, G.; Lopes Barbosa, A.; Vizcaino Martinez, M.; Polce, C.; Vandecasteele, I.; Mari Rivero, I.; Bastos de Morais Guerra, C.; Perpiña Castillo, C.; et al. Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and Their Services: Trends in Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services in the European Union between 2000 and EUR 27143; Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2015.
  23. Konijnendijk, C.C. The Forest and the City. In The Cultural Landscape of Urban Woodland; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2008.
  24. Zhang, Y.; Chen, H.Y.H.; Reich, P. Forest Productivity Increases with Evenness, Species Richness and Trait Variation: A Global Meta-Analysis. J. Ecol. 2012, 100, 742–749.
  25. Zhang, F.; Chung, C.K.L.; Yin, Z. Green Infrastructure for China’s New Urbanisation: A Case Study of Greenway Development in Maanshan. Urban Stud. 2019, 57, 508–524.
  26. Jaszczak, R. Forest and Forest Management within the Influence of Cities in Poland. (Las i Gospodarka Leśna w Zasięgu Oddziaływania Miast w Polsce). Stud. Mater. CEPL 2008, 10, 152–171. (In Polish)
  27. Tyrväinen, L.; Miettinen, A. Property Prices and Urban Forest Amenities. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 2000, 39, 205–223.
  28. Fornal-Pieniak, B.; Ollik, M.; Schwerk, A. Impact of Different Levels of Anthropogenic Pressure on the Plant Species Composition in Woodland Sites. Urban For. Urban Green. 2019, 38, 295–304.
  29. Sanesi, G.; Colangelo, G.; Lafortezza, R.; Calvo, E.; Davies, C. Urban Green Infrastructure and Urban Forests: A Case Study of the Metropolitan Area of Milan. Landsc. Res. 2017, 42, 164–175.
  30. Ferrini, F.; Fini, A.; Mori, J.; Gori, A. Role of Vegetation as a Mitigating Factor in the Urban Context. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4247.
  31. Popek, R.; Gawrońska, H.; Wrochna, M.; Gawroński, S.; Saebø, A. Particulate Matter on Foliage of 13 Woody Species: Deposition on Surfaces and Phytostabilisation in Waxes–A 3-Year Study. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2013, 15, 245–256.
  32. Mo, L.; Ma, Z.; Xu, Y.; Sun, F.; Lun, X.; Liu, X.; Chen, J.; Yu, X. Assessing the Capacity of Plant Species to Accumulate Particulate Matter in Beijing, China. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0140664.
  33. Chen, B.; Li, S.; Yang, X.; Lu, S.; Wang, B.; Niu, X. Characteristics of Atmospheric PM2.5 in Stands and Non-Forest Cover Sites Across Urban-Rural Areas in Beijing, China. Urban Ecosyst. 2016, 19, 867–883.
  34. Przybysz, A.; Wińska-Krysiak, M.; Małecka-Przybysz, M.; Stankiewicz-Kosyl, M.; Skwara, M.; Kłos, A.; Kowalczyk, S.; Jarocka, K.; Sikorski, P. Urban Wastelands: On the Frontline between Air Pollution Sources and Residential Areas. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 721, 137695.
  35. Zhou, C.; Li, S.; Wang, S. Examining the Impacts of Urban Form on Air Pollution in Developing Countries: A Case Study of China’s Megacities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1565.
  36. Zhang, X.; Chen, Y. Admissibility and Robust Stabilization of Continuous Linear Singular Fractional Order Systems with the Fractional Order α: The 0 < α < 1 Case. ISA Trans. 2018, 82, 42–50.
  37. Todorov, V.; Dimov, I.; Ostromsky, T.; Zlatev, Z.; Georgieva, R.; Poryazov, S. Optimized Quasi-Monte Carlo methods based on Van der Corput sequence for sensitivity analysis in air pollution modelling. In Recent Advances in Computational Optimization, WCO 2020, Studies in Computational Intelligence, 1st ed.; Fidanova, S., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2022; Volume 986, pp. 389–405.
  38. Łukowski, A.; Popek, R.; Karolewski, P. Particulate Matter on Foliage of Betula Pendula, Quercus Robur, and Tilia Cordata: Deposition and Ecophysiology. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 10296–10307.
  39. Sgrigna, G.; Baldacchini, C.; Dreveck, S.; Cheng, Z.; Calfapietra, C. Relationships between Air Particulate Matter Capture Efficiency and Leaf Traits in Twelve Tree Species from an Italian Urban-Industrial Environment. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 718, 137310.
  40. Li, X.; Zhang, T.; Sun, F.; Song, X.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, F.; Yuan, C.; Yu, H.; Zhang, G.; Qi, F.; et al. The Relationship between Particulate Matter Retention Capacity and Leaf Surface Micromorphology of Ten Tree Species in Hangzhou, China. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 771, 144812.
  41. Wang, X.; Teng, M.; Huang, C.; Zhou, Z.; Chen, X.; Xiang, Y. Canopy Density Effects on Particulate Matter Attenuation Coefficients in Street Canyons during Summer in the Wuhan Metropolitan Area. Atmos. Environ. 2020, 240, 117739.
  42. Patra, A.; Colville, R.; Arnold, S.; Bowen, E.; Shallcross, D.E.; Martin, D.; Price, C.S.; Tate, J.; ApSimon, H.; Robins, A. On street observations of particulate matter movement and dispersion due to traffic on an urban road. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42, 3911–3926.
  43. Tong, Z.; Whitlow, T.H.; MacRae, P.F.; Landers, A.J.; Harada, Y. Quantifying the Effect of Vegetation on Near-Road Air Quality Using Brief Campaigns. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 201, 141–149.
  44. Viippola, V.; Yli-Pelkonen, V.; Järvi, L.; Kulmala, M.; Setälä, H. Effects of Forests on Particle Number Concentrations in Near-Road Environments across Three Geographic Regions. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 266, 115294.
  45. Matuszkiewcz, W. Guide to the Identification of Plant Communities in Poland (Przewodnik do Oznaczania Zbiorowisk Roślinnych Polski); PWN: Warszawa, Poland, 2014; p. 540. (In Polish)
  46. Przybysz, A.; Popek, R.; Stankiewicz-Kosyl, M.; Zhu, C.; Małecka-Przybysz, M.; Maulidyawati, T.; Mikowska, K.; Deluga, D.; Griżuk, K.; Sokalski-Wieczorek, J.; et al. Where Trees Cannot Grow–Particulate Matter Accumulation by Urban Meadows. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 785, 147310.
  47. Eziz, A.; Yan, Z.; Tian, D.; Han, W.; Tang, Z.; Fang, J. Drought Effect on Plant Biomass Allocation: A Meta-Analysis. Ecol. Evol. 2017, 7, 11002–11010.
  48. Mori, J.; Hanslin, H.M.; Burchi, G.; Sæbø, A. Particulate Matter and Element Accumulation on Coniferous Trees at Different Distances from a Highway. Urban For. Urban Green. 2015, 14, 170–177.
  49. Popek, R.; Gawrońska, H.; Gawroński, S.W. The Level of Particulate Matter on Foliage Depends on the Distance from the Source of Emission. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2015, 17, 1262–1268.
  50. Weber, F.; Kowarik, I.; Säumel, I. Herbaceous Plants as Filters: Immobilization of Particulates along Urban Street Corridors. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 186, 234–240.
  51. Muhammad, S.; Wuyts, K.; Samson, R. Immobilized Atmospheric Particulate Matter on Leaves of 96 Urban Plant Species. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 36920–36938.
  52. Speak, A.F.; Rothwell, J.J.; Lindley, S.J.; Smith, C.L. Urban Particulate Pollution Reduction by Four Species of Green Roof Vegetation in a UK City. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 61, 283–293.
  53. Janhäll, S. Review on Urban Vegetation and Particle Air Pollution—Deposition and Dispersion. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 105, 130–137.
  54. Nguyen, T.; Yu, X.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, M.; Liu, X. Relationship between Types of Urban Forest and PM2.5 Capture at Three Growth Stages of Leaves. J. Environ. Sci. 2015, 27, 33–41.
  55. Zhang, Z.; Liu, J.; Wu, Y.; Yan, G.; Zhu, L.; Yu, X. Multi-Scale Comparison of the Fine Particle Removal Capacity of Urban Forests and Wetlands. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, srep46214.
  56. Popek, R.; Haynes, A.; Przybysz, A.; Robinson, S.A. How Much Does Weather Matter? Effects of Rain and Wind on PM Accumulation by Four Species of Australian Native Trees. Atmosphere 2019, 10, 633.
  57. Xu, X.; Yu, X.; Bao, L.; Desai, A.R. Size Distribution of Particulate Matter in Runoff from Different Leaf Surfaces during Controlled Rainfall Processes. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 255, 113234.
  58. Bretzel, F.; Vannucchi, F.; Romano, D.; Malorgio, F.; Benvenuti, S.; Pezzarossa, B. Wildflowers: From Conserving Biodiversity to Urban Greening—A Review. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 20, 428–436.
  59. Baldauf, R.; Fortune, C.; Weinstein, J.; Wheeler, M.; Blanchard, F. Air Contaminant Exposures during the Operation of Lawn and Garden Equipment. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2006, 16, 362–370.
  60. Vos, P.E.J.; Maiheu, B.; Vankerkom, J.; Janssen, S. Improving Local Air Quality in Cities: To Tree or not to Tree? Environ. Pollut. 2013, 183, 113–122.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
Video Production Service
Feedback