Traffic-Related PM Accumulation by Vegetation of Urban Forests: History
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Subjects: Environmental Sciences
Contributor:
Filip Chylinski

In terms of the process of air purification, a lot of attention has been devoted to trees and shrubs. Little attention has been paid to herbaceous vegetation from the lower forest layers. Urban forests are often located on the outskirts of cities and surround exit roads where there is heavy traffic, generating particulate matter (PM) pollution. 

  • air pollution
  • particulate matter
  • herbaceous plants
  • mosses
  • shrubs
  • trees

1. Introduction

Urbanisation is a process that causes many negative modifications in the city environment, such as temperature increase (up to 3–10 °C, Urban Heat Island effect) and soil and atmospheric pollution, particularly of traffic origin (nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone, particulate matter—PM10 and PM2.5) [1][2][3]. The health effects of exposure to air pollution related to traffic (TRAP—traffic-related air pollution) have been thoroughly studied [4][5][6][7]. A significant negative relationship between human health and particulate matter (PM) has been found [7][8]. Due to its strong, adverse health effects and high concentration, especially in urban areas, PM is ranked first among air pollutants that threaten health and life by the WHO [5]. Especially dangerous is small PM, which poses a great threat to human health and life [7][8]. In the case of PM2.5 (or smaller PM) it is difficult to determine a safe level below which there are no adverse health effects [5]. Reports from the World Health Organization indicate that long-term exposure to PM pollutants leads to shorter life expectancy [5]. Exposure to PM pollution may cause respiratory irritation, coughing, breathing problems, worsening of asthma symptoms, decreased lung function and in extreme situations heart rate disturbance, and even heart attack or premature death in people with respiratory and circulatory problems [9].
The degrees and types of pollution are diversified in European countries [10]. Transport emissions are one of the main global sources of pollution, including particulate matter (PM) in urban areas [11][12], which also holds true in Poland [13]. The roadside concentrations of PM decrease with the distance from the road; however, pollution emitted by transport vehicles can be present in the air even 50–100 m from the road source [14][15]. The common opinion is that road PM has a maximum range of several dozen meters (up to 100 m) in terrain, not limited by physical barriers [16]. Conversely, Wu et al. [17] showed that in Macao (China), over the total measured distance from the road (0–228 m), the maximum decreases of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 were only 7%, 9%, and 10% of the maximum occurring at 2 m from the road, respectively. Transport vehicles emit various dangerous air pollutants, e.g., exhaust fumes; however, the largest share in the pollution emitted from roads is non-exhaust road emissions [11][18]. Non-exhaust sources account for 90% of PM10 and 85% of PM2.5 from traffic [18] and are the result of tire wear, brake wear, road surface wear, and resuspension of road dust [19][20].
Global strategic action, considering sustainable development, adaptation to climate warming, and the mitigation of pollutants (including air pollution), has focused on a green economy [21], comprising the creation of green infrastructure (GI) in urban areas. Urban ecosystems are typically fragmented areas, where natural spaces are adjacent to residential, industrial, or business zones, crisscrossed by roads and sidewalks, and belong to the “green infrastructure” of the city. Urban forests are one of the basic patches of “green infrastructure”, performing biological diversity functions according to European Union law [22]. The urban forest is usually a natural space with vegetation, including mosses, herbaceous plants, shrubs and tree layers in a city [23]. With the development of urbanisation, the ecological value of urban forests, which improve urban environmental quality, have become important [24][25]. Urban forests occupy almost 120,000 ha in Polish cities [26]. Generally, the flora of urban forests is more disturbed than in forests located outside of the city [27] because of the urbanisation process [3][28], but these forests still serve many positive ecological functions as reservoirs of biodiversity of flora and fauna and in their role as shaping the main ecological corridors of the city [25][29].
Plants are currently the only effective tool to reduce PM air pollution in larger areas, such as big urban agglomerations [30]. Quantifying the amount of PM that deposits and accumulates on different plant species was studied by Popek et al. [31], Mo et al. [32], Chen et al. [33], and Przybysz et al. [34]. It was confirmed by these authors that plants serve as natural filters; however, every plant species has a different ability to accumulate PM. Most studies are focused on parks, roadside vegetation, street trees, hedges, shrubs, green walls, and green roofs located in city centres, the most representative and densely populated places, where they mitigate pollution impacts. The places with the most polluted air in cities are, however, located elsewhere, e.g., on routes leading out of cities and industrial areas [35]. Urban greenery in these locations is the most important and often the only barrier between very high PM pollution and inhabited areas [34]. Despite the fact that researchers have developed successful algorithms for air pollution spreading [36][37], there is still a lack of such models for plant communities, especially for urban forests. A holistic understanding and improvement of the efficiency of urban greenery in places with the most polluted air may be critical in reducing the negative impact of PM on city dwellers. The research must take into account that urban green areas (including urban forests) have diversified vertical and horizontal structures of vegetation. For this reason, The researchers innovative approach is to assess the effectiveness of PM accumulation by studying all of the vegetation growing on polluted exit roads from a big European city.

2. Traffic-Related PM Accumulation by Vegetation of Urban Forests

PM is mainly the result of anthropogenic processes in cities [27]. here, the researchers analysed the accumulation of PM from a city’s exit road and its distribution into the urban forest. The studied urban forest had a zonal structure. The highest number and cover of herbaceous plants was represented by synanthropic and grass species in the first two zones (No. 1 and No. 2), located near the source of transport pollution. The plant species composition in zones 3, 4, and 5 were more typical for fresh coniferous forests, which means that the habitat was more “natural”, with less anthropogenic impacts. When designing vegetation barriers to mitigate near-road air pollution, zones of urban greenery characterised by different structures of vegetation, including herbaceous plants and mosses, are rarely taken into the account; the greatest emphasis is placed only on trees and shrubs [38][39][40][41]. However, for safety (better visibility, avoiding accidents) and space reasons, trees and high shrubs cannot grow in the immediate vicinity of roads and intersections. Consequently, where trees cannot be planted, PM emitted from the road may be dispersed and transferred to new locations [41][42][43][44] or accumulated by herbaceous plants and grasses [45]. The presence of trees can in turn lead to elevated PM concentrations close to the road because high vegetation acts as a dam for polluted air [43][44]. In some cases PM dispersion can be interpreted as a favourable phenomenon, as it leads to lower PM concentration in the air at the place of its emission [43][46]. Conversely, PM that has not been adsorbed on any physical barrier may be relocated to new locations, which are perceived as clean since they are devoid of PM sources. It seems that a much safer solution would be PM accumulation and its permanent retention on plants growing in the immediate vicinity of the road. The critical problem to be addressed is finding plants that will be able to tolerate very difficult growing conditions (salinity, drought, pollution, soil degradation, and compotation), grow along the roads, not pose a threat to road users, and effectively accumulate PM from the air. The results of this work demonstrate that more attention should be paid to herbaceous plants. Many perennial herbaceous plants can tolerate a close proximity to roads. Herbaceous plants, especially those that are relatively big in size, tend to have deep root systems and, as resource-conserving species, invest more in their defence and storage mechanisms [47]. In this study, herbaceous plants were shown to grow in areas where airborne PM concentrations were significantly high (5 and 10 times higher than at the forest edge). These plants were the most exposed to the toxic effects of air pollutants and constituted the first physical barrier (filter for air pollution) between the road and cleaner air. Herbaceous vegetation turned out to be effective at PM accumulation. PM accumulation by herbaceous perennial plants is a consequence of their location, which is as close as possible to emission sources (1–10 m from the road), but also their morphology and canopy structure. The high accumulation of PM by plants growing in the immediate vicinity of the emission sources is a well-described phenomenon [48][49]. Many herbaceous plants are covered with hairs and a thick waxy coating, which are the features that determine the effective accumulation of PM [50][51]. Here, the reseachers analysed the leaves of Achillea millefolium, Plantago major, and Hieracium pilosella, which are covered with hairs. The high proportion of grasses (mowed rarely or not at all) in the assessed plant community was responsible for the high density and porosity of the plant filter. The high efficiency of PM accumulation by herbaceous plants was previously shown by Przybysz et al. [46], Weber et al. [50], Speak et al. [52], and Janhäl [53], while the ability of grasses to accumulate PM from the air was demonstrated by Przybysz et al. [34]. Unmoved herbaceous plant communities are typically tall enough (30–50 cm at least), yet permeable and dense enough to act as an effective air filter near the source of roadway emissions. In order to exploit the phytoremediation potential of herbaceous plants fully, it is worth limiting the mowing of roadside vegetation, especially in locations where aesthetics are less important, as for example, the city exit road studied in this work. It has already been shown that the structure and location of greenery near pollution emission sources has a much greater impact on PM accumulation potential than the biodiversity and species composition of plant communities [34]. This suggests that even a spontaneous roadside herbaceous community can have a positive impact on the air quality near roads.
The first line of trees accumulates (per unit of leaf area, not the whole plant) significantly less PM than herbaceous perennials. This is a surprising result, as until now street-adjacent trees were seen as the only element of urban greenery having a real impact on limiting air pollution with PM [54][55]. In this work, the higher efficiency of PM accumulation by herbaceous plants compared to trees is attributed to their shorter distance from the road, which was the only PM source in the area. Possibly, herbaceous plants filtered the polluted air emitted from the road before it reached the trees. Since the air pollutants were emitted close to the ground, and the herbaceous plants were right next to the road, they could significantly reduce PM dispersion and transport. Conversely, the trees grew just 10 m away from the road, which is relatively close to the emission source; thus, they should accumulate PM efficiently, especially considering their height (at least a few meters) and planting density. The high concentration of PM in the air between the road and the first row of trees shows that, despite the very effective accumulation of PM by herbaceous plants, the air was still polluted, and the amount of PM deposited on shrubs and tree leaves should be higher. Another explanation may be the re-suspension of PM temporarily accumulated on shrubs and trees by wind and rain. Wind and rain can remove significant amounts of PM from the leaf surface [34][44][53][56][57]. Re-suspended PM returns to the environment and can pollute the air again. It seems that herbaceous plants growing under and close to the trees most probably also accumulate PM re-suspended from taller vegetation. It can be assumed that herbaceous plants growing along the road should adhere to the first row of trees, so that they could accumulate PM re-suspended from trees and shrubs. Under trees and shrubs, especially near the roadside, there should be no hardened surfaces (pavements, bicycle paths, parking lots), because they cause further re-suspension of PM. This is another piece of evidence that herbaceous plants (preferably tall and unmown) play a very important role in removing PM from the air and should be a permanent element of urban greenery along roads. If possible, lawns should be replaced by meadows. Lawns offer fewer ecosystem services (biodiversity, food for pollinators, habitat for invertebrates) and require higher maintenance costs than a meadow [58]. In addition, lawns require mowing, which results in additional air pollutant emissions [59].
A new and very interesting finding of this study is the increasing accumulation of PM on leaves inside the forest, despite the very low concentration of PM in the forest (20 and 50 m from the road). Previous studies have indicated that PM accumulation on plants decreases with increasing distance from the edge of the forest/park [49]. Popek et al. [49], however, studied a large city park with lower planting density and the presence of numerous wide footpaths, which resulted in greater ventilation and air movement. The small amount of PM that reached the interior of the park did not have to be accumulated by the plants, but could be carried somewhere else. The trees and shrubs in this park were also exposed to rain and wind. In the present study, the dense canopy of tall trees constituted an insulating layer for air pollutants, including PM. Once PM was transferred deeper into the forest, it was trapped there due to little/no air movement. Most probably, most of the PM that entered the forest was accumulated by forest vegetation and then retained for a long period of time. The plant samples in the forest were collected at a height of 1.5 m; therefore, the analysed plant material was exposed to rain and wind only to a minimal extent. PM was not regularly washed off the surface of the leaves, as happened at the edge of the forest. Moreover, the increased accumulation inside the forest mainly concerns the smallest PM and the most detrimental to health (0.2–10 µm). On the contrary, the accumulation of PM by herbaceous plants and mosses decreased with increasing distance from the road, and it was significantly lower inside the forest. It is probable that before the PM fell by gravity onto lower vegetation, it was accumulated and retained by trees and shrubs. The presence of a dense forest close to the road caused the PM concentration in the air between the road and the first row of trees to be very high, often exceeding the permissible standards. The results obtained in this study support the finding of Vos [60], who showed that trees can increase PM concentrations along the road. Tong et al. [43] argue that, unlike trees, lawns (and possibly other low vegetation) lead to the dispersion of pollutants into the air, consequently lowering the concentration of PM. The researchers are of the opinion that in order to combat air pollution generated by road transport effectively, roadside greenery must be diverse and have a layered structure. A mixture of relatively tall herbaceous plants should be grown along the roadside in areas where the presence of shrubs and trees is not possible. The task of the usually underestimated herbaceous vegetation is to capture PM from the air immediately after its emission. Shrubs and trees, in turn, act as a barrier against the uncontrolled spread and accumulation of PM that has not been deposited on herbaceous plants present in zones 1 and 2. The first rows of trees should be relatively porous so as to enable PM transport into the forest, where it will be permanently accumulated by trees and shrubs. For the above reason, the area between the road and the first rows of trees should be inaccessible to human activity, e.g., bicycle and walking paths should always be at least a few rows of trees away.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14052973

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