Algae Metabolites in Cosmeceutical: History
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Subjects: Dermatology

Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids which refer to a cosmetic product with active ingredients claiming to have medicinal or drug-like benefits to skin health. Marine algae are rich in bioactive substances that have shown to exhibit strong benefits to the skin, particularly in overcoming rashes, pigmentation, aging, and cancer. 

  • marine algae
  • cosmeceuticals
  • UV-radiation
  • anti-aging
  • anticancer
  • skin whitening

1. Introduction

1.1. Synthetic Versus Natural Ingredients in Cosmetic Industry

Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids which refer to a cosmetic product with active ingredients claiming to have medicinal or drug-like benefits to skin health [1,2]. Globally, the cosmeceutical industry is growing each year due to the trend of modern lifestyle. More recently, the cosmeceutical industry is progressively shifting to natural bioactive ingredients because of the ineffectiveness of synthetic cosmetics [3].
Ineffectiveness of synthetic cosmetics includes their side effects and low absorption rate. The low absorption rate of cosmetics could be due to the big size of the molecular compounds. A study by Bos and Marcus [4] asserted that only compounds with the molecular weight lesser than 500 Dalton (Da) could penetrate through the skin. Cyclosporin (MW 1202 Da), a topical immunosuppressant, was not effective against psoriasis and allergic contact dermatitis as a higher molecular weight of the compounds inhibits skin penetration. Still, it was effective in psoriasis treatment when directly injected into the skin. Some of the side effects include irritation and allergic reaction to the users. According to a case study, hydroxybenzoic acid esters (parabens), which are widely used in cosmetic products, has been reported to mimic oestrogen; hence, increasing the incidence of breast cancer and causing the development of malignant melanoma [5].
In addition, a study on a population conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 97% of 2540 individuals were exposed to phthalates (a component of plastic that appears in cosmetic products; for instance, dibutyl phthalate in nail polish), which could result in DNA damage in human sperm [6]. In 2004, the Environment California, Environmental Working Group, and Friends of the Earth issued reports on cosmetic products containing chemical ingredients that lacked safety data. Some of these chemicals caused adverse effects in animal studies such as male genitalia congenital disabilities, altered pregnancy outcomes, and decreased in sperm counts [6]. As a result, consumers have changed their preference and opted for natural cosmetic products. The global market value for natural cosmetics was about $34.5 billion in 2018, and it is estimated to reach approximately $54.5 billion in 2027 [7]. The ever-expanding market for skincare products and continual search for innovative ingredients has led to the development of a multitude of cosmeceutical products based on natural bioactive ingredients, which include plants, herbs, and even marine algae [8].
Macroalgae are classified into three major classes, namely Phaeophyceae (brown algae), Rhodophyceae (red algae), and Chlorophyceae (green algae). Based on the total culture production, it is estimated that about 59% of brown algae, 40% of red algae, and less than 1% of green algae are produced worldwide [9]. Marine algae are rich sources of structurally diverse bioactive compounds, which are absent in other taxonomic groups. Algae contain 10 times greater diversity of compounds than terrestrial plants [10] and they have a totally different flavonoid composition from vegetables and fruits. Macroalgae are a rich source of catechins and flavonols [11]. Furthermore, algae-derived phlorotannin possesses a unique structure, which is not found in terrestrial plants and this compound may constitute up to 25% of the dry weight of brown algae [11]. Algae produce a wide array of primary metabolites, such as unsaturated fatty acids, polysaccharides, vitamins, and essential amino acids [12,13]. Additionally, many research findings reported that secondary metabolites derived from algae such as fucoidan, fucoxanthin, sulphated polysaccharide, polyphenol and fucosterol were shown to possess anti-inflammation, antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial and anti-aging effects [14,15,16,17,18]. The demand for algae bioactive compounds in cosmeceuticals is rapidly increasing as they contain natural extracts which are considered safe; thus, rendering fewer side effects on humans. In ancient times, marine algae were used as medicine to treat skin-related diseases, such as atopic dermatitis and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) related disease [12]. In a nutshell, marine algae are a promising resource for the development of cosmeceuticals.
Marine algae can survive in harsh conditions (i.e., withstand heat, cold, ultra-violet radiation, salinity, and desiccation) [8,9,19] due to their ability to adapt to physiological changes by producing stress tolerant substances. For example, algae produce organic osmolytes during stress conditions, which also act as antioxidants and heat protectants. Algae grow under desiccation by producing specialized spores which remain dormant during stress conditions and revive once the conditions return to normal. The presence of thick cell walls with protective layers of chemical substances and mucilage sheath helps to delay the process of desiccation. Algae that grow in cold desserts can endure the subzero temperature and protect the cells from UV irradiation by producing spores that have thick cell walls and reserve food as lipid and sugars [20]. In addition, marine algae uptake inorganic ions to balance extracellular ion concentration and produce organic osmolytes which protects them from desiccation and UV lights. A study reported that Dunaliella salina has 55 novel membrane-associated proteins that showed changes in the composition and structure of the membranes associated with algae adaptation to salinity [21]. Algae are rich in a wide variety of secondary metabolites to help them adapt and survive in harsh conditions. Algae could also adapt to desiccation stress by producing specialized spores such as aplanspores, which are rich in astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid that protects the cells from photo-oxidation. Algae exposed to UV radiations will produce UV screening compounds such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAA), which acted as antioxidants and involved in osmotic regulations. Furthermore, algae exposed to high solar radiation and low nitrogen concentration produce more β-carotene, such as Dunaliella [20]. Thus, algae that are naturally exposed to oxidative stress develop defense systems that protect them against reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals. These compounds could be used in cosmetics to protect the cells against the adverse effects of UV radiation. Some of the environmental benefits of algae include fixation of carbon dioxide. Studies have reported that large cultivation of microalgae capable of uptaking carbon from the atmosphere; for instance, Spirulina platensis with carbon fixation rate of 318 mg/L−1d−1 and Chlorella vulgaris with carbon fixation rate of 251 mg/L−1d−1 [22,23].

1.2. Current Applications of Algae-Derived Metabolites in Cosmeceutical Industrial

The transition from synthetic compounds to natural products such as marine algae have been attracting the attention of many researchers since algae possess a wide range of pharmacological activities with negligible cytotoxicity effects in human cells [24]. Marine algae are used for different purposes in food, pharmaceutical, biofuel, agriculture, and cosmetic industries. Industries, such as Cyanotech, Fuji Chemical Seambiotic, and Mera Pharmaceuticals are producers of microalgae biomass contributing to products in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and nutritious feed [25]. Interestingly, phycocyanin (usually found in red algae and cyanobacteria) is accepted as a natural color additive in food and cosmetics by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) due to its non-toxic, natural, and biodegradable properties. Accordingly, it becomes the major target of the market in the United States [26].
Meanwhile, carotenoid such as astaxanthin plays a crucial role in scavenging free radicals in the human body and it is considered a strong antioxidant; hence, its popularity as a human dietary supplement. Leading cosmeceutical industries, such as Unilever, L’Oreal, Henkel, and Beiersdorf are expected to improve the growth of carotenoid market value in the European market [27]. The market value for carotenoids is expected to reach about $1.53 billion by 2021 [27,28].
Furthermore, red algae Gracilaria account for most of the raw material for the agar extraction. It is reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations that more than 80% of the agar were produced from Gracilaria species, which are mainly produced by China and Indonesia [29]. Gracilaria species have been widely used in cosmetics due to their stabilizing, thickening, and gelling characters. Commercially available products from Gracilaria species include hydrogel soap by Sea Laria®, facial mask by Balinique®, and hydrating cream by Thalasso® [29].
A number of algae-based skin products have been marketed, such as Algenist (an anti-aging moisturizer containing microalgae oil and alguronic acid from algae) [30], Helionori® by Gelyma and Helioguard365® (a sunscreen product containing MAAs from red seaweed Porphyra umbilicalis) [31], Protulines® by Exsymol S.A.M., Monaco (an anti-aging agent from protein-rich extract of Arthrospira), and Dermochlorella by Codif, St. Malo, France (an anti-wrinkling agent from Chlorella vulgaris extract) [32]. Therefore, bioactive compounds derived from algae could be considered a potential cosmeceutical agent for skincare.

1.3. UV Radiation and Skin-Related Diseases

Skin is one of the most complex and largest organs that serves as a protective barrier against water losses and environmental stresses, such as ultraviolet radiation (UVR), pathogens, physical agents, and chemicals [33]. The skin comprises three layers—epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The presence of keratinocyte cells and melanocyte cells in the epidermis layer plays a vital role in repairing damaged skin and protecting the skin from UV light. The dermis consists of elastin, hyaluronic acid, and collagen which involves tissue repair and stability, whereas hypodermis consists of fats, which involved in body insulation [9]. Several skin-related diseases that have been reported include acne, eczema, dermatitis, hives, psoriasis, and pityriasis rosea which cause rashes [34]. Other skin diseases include pigmentation disorders, such as hypopigmentation due to the absence of melanocytes and hyperpigmentation caused by a metabolic disorder or skin irritation. In addition, one of the biggest concerns is skin cancers (e.g., squamous, basal, and melanoma) with melanoma being the deadliest form in America because of overexposure to UV radiation [35].
In most cases, humans are exposed to UV radiation due to overexposure to sunlight. UV radiation can produce many adverse effects within the cells, including DNA damage, skin pathologies, such as erythema and inflammation, skin aging, and cancer [36]. There are three main components of UV radiation, namely UVA (315–400 nm), UVB (280–315 nm), and UVC (100–280 nm) [37]. UVA can reach the dermis layer of skin, increasing the level of ROS that indirectly induce DNA mutagenesis, which results in skin aging and wrinkling. UVA can act as a carcinogen by shortening telomere in the DNA strand and it has less ability to stimulate melanin production resulting in redness, sun tanning, and freckles. UVB can penetrate the epidermis layer and damage the DNA in skin cells directly and induce skin cancers. UVC is highly bioactive but humans are not exposed to UVC because it is mostly absorbed by the ozone layer. In addition, UV-induced oxidative stress plays a crucial role in causing aging, inflammation, melanogenesis and even cancer which are shown in Figure 1 [9,12,38,39,40,41].
Figure 1. Effect of UV radiation-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS). Accumulation of ROS leads to skin cancer, inflammation, photoaging, wrinkling, and melanogenic through activation of respective signaling pathways.

2. Marine Algae-Derived Compounds in Cosmeceutical Application

Based on the evidence from previous studies, brown algae contribute the most in cosmeceuticals. Some bioactive compounds from brown algae exhibit multiple cosmeceutical activities, including phlorotannin, which possesses several activities, such as anti-melanogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and anti-aging [12,42,43,44]. Likewise, fucoidan, a sulphated polysaccharide isolated from brown algae, contributes to anti-inflammation, anti-melanogenic and anticancer [45,46,47]. Fucoxanthin, a carotenoid isolated from brown, red, green and microalgae exhibit anti-melanogenic, anti-aging and antioxidant activities [48,49,50]. Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), which are commonly found in red and green seaweeds, and microalgae also contribute to antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and anti-aging [51,52,53]. Other examples of bioactive compounds derived from algae, their applications and mode of actions in cosmeceuticals are presented in Table 1. The chemical structures of some prominent bioactive compounds are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Chemical structures of bioactive compounds derived from algae. (1) Eckol, (2) Fucosterol, (3) Diphlorethohydroxycarmalol, (4) Mycosporine-glycine, (5) Eleganonal, (6) Phenol, (7) Ascophyllan, (8) Laurinterol, (9) Fucoidan, (10) Eicosapentaenoic acid, (11) Lutein, (12) Sargachromanol E, (13) Fucoxanthin, (14) Astaxanthin, (15) Zeaxanthin, and (16) Lycopene.
Table 1. Bioactive compounds derived from algae and their applications in cosmeceuticals.

Algae Species

Bioactive Compound/Extract

Beneficial Activity

Mechanism of Action

Experimental Model

Reference

Brown algae

Ascophyllum nodosum

Ascophyllan

Anticancer

Inhibit MMP expression

B16 melanoma cells

[54]

Bifurcaria bifurcata

Eleganonal

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[55]

Chnoospora implexa

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pyogenes

[56]

Chnoospora minima

Fucoidan

Anti-inflammation

Inhibition of LPS-induced NO production, iNOS, COX-2, and PGE2 levels

RAW macrophages

[47]

Cladosiphon okamuranus

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[49]

Colpomenia sinuosa

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Cystoseira barbata

Fat-soluble vitamin and carotenoids

Antioxidant

High fat-soluble vitamin and carotenoid content

In vitro

[57]

Cystoseira foeniculacea

Polyphenol

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition (EC50 = 5.27 mg/mL)

In vitro

[58]

Cystoseira hakodatensis

Phenol and fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

High total phenolic and fucoxanthin content

In vitro

[59]

Cystoseira osmundacea

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. pyogenes

[56]

Dictyopteris delicatula

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Dictyota dichotoma

Algae extract

Antimicrobial

Inhibit the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls

Penicillium purpurescens, Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus

[60]

Ecklonia cava

Dieckol

Anti-inflammation

Suppression of iNOS and COX-2

Murine BV2 microglia

[61]

Phlorotannin

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit melanin production

B16F10 melanoma cells

[44]

Phlorotannin

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

Chinese hamster lung fibroblast (V79-4)

[62]

Ecklonia kurome

Phlorotannin

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit hyaluronidase

Assay of HAase (In vitro)

[42]

Ecklonia Stolonifera

Phlorotannin

Anti-aging

Inhibit MMP expression

Human dermal fibroblast cell

[43]

Phlorofucofuroeckol A and B

Anti-inflammation

Inhibition of NO production by downregulating iNOS and prostaglandin E2

LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

[63]

Eisenia arborea

Phlorotannin

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit release of histamine

Rat basophile leukemia cells (RBL-2HE)

[64]

Eisenia bicyclis

Phlorotannin

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit hyaluronidase

Assay of HAase (In vitro)

[42]

Fucus evanescens

Fucoidan

Anticancer

Inhibit cell proliferation

Human malignant melanoma cells

[45]

Fucus vesiculosus

Extract

Anti-aging

Stimulate collagen production

N/A

[8]

Fucoidan

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase and melanin

B16 murine melanoma cells

[46]

Fucoidan

Anticancer

Decrease melanoma growth

Mice

[65]

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

Prevent oxidation formation

In vitro, RAW 264.7 macrophage, Mouse (ex vivo)

[66]

Halopteris scoparia

Ethanol extract

Anti-inflammation

COX-2 inhibition

COX inhibitory screening assay kit

[67]

Himanthalia elongota

Fatty acid and Phenol

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus

[68]

Hizikia fusiformis

Fucosterol

Anti-aging

Inhibit MMP expression

Human dermal fibroblast

[18]

Ethyl acetate extract

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase and melanin

B16F10 mouse melanoma cells

[69]

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[70]

Hydroclathrus clathratus

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Ishige foliacea

Phlorotannin

Anti-melanogenic

Downregulation of tyrosinase and melanin synthesis

B16F10 cells

Zebrafish embryo

[71,72]

Ishige okamurae

Diphlorethohydroxycarmalol

Anti-inflammation

Down-regulation of iNOS and COX-2 expression and NF-κβ activation

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells

[73]

Laminaria japonica

Fucoxanthin

Anti-melanogenic

Suppress tyrosinase activity

UVB- irradiated guinea pig

[48]

Laminaria ochroleuca

Polyphenol

Antioxidant

High total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity

In vitro

[74]

Macrocystis pyrifera

Phlorotannin

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[8]

Hyaluronic acid

Anti-aging

Enhance the production of syndecan-4

N/A

[75]

Padina concrescens

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Padina pavonica

Polyphenol

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Candida albicans and Mucor ramaniannus

[17]

Acetone extract

Antioxidant

Free radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 691.56 µg L−1)

In vitro

[60]

Padina tetrastromatic

Diterpenes

Antioxidant

DPPH (IC50 = 1.73) & ABTS (IC50 = 2.01) inhibitions

In vitro

[76]

Sulfated polysaccharide

Anti-inflammation

COX-2 and iNOS inhibitions

Paw edema in rats

[77]

Petalonia binghamiae

Ethanol extract

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase and melanin

B16F10 murine melanoma cells

[78]

Aqueous extract

Antioxidant

Anti-inflammation

DPPH inhibition

COX-2 inhibition

In vitro

In vitro

[67]

Rosenvingea intrincata

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Saccharina latissima

Phenol

Antioxidant

High total phenolic content, DPPH scavenging activity and FRAP

In vitro

[79]

Sargassum fulvellum

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[70]

Sargassum furcatum

Methanol extract

Antioxidant

DPPH (EC50 = 0.461) & ABTS (EC50 = 0.266) inhibitions

In vitro

[80]

Sargassum hemiphyllum

Sulfated polysaccharide

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory response

RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

[81]

Sargassum henslowianum

Sulfated polysaccharide

Anticancer

Activation of caspase-3

B16 melanoma cells

[82]

Sargassum horridum

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Sargassum horneri

Sargachromanol.E

Anti-aging

Inhibit MMP expression

UVA irradiated dermal fibroblast

[83]

Alginic acid

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit inflammatory response

HaCaT cells

[84]

Sargassum muticum

Tetraprenyltoluquinol chromane meroterpenoid

Anti-aging

ROS scavenging potential

Human dermal fibroblast

[85]

Sargassum polycystum

Ethanol extract

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase and melanin production

B16F10 melanoma cells

[39]

Sargassum serratifolium

Sargachromenol

Anti-melanogenic

Downregulation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor

B16F10 melanoma cells

[39]

Sargassum siliquastrum

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

Reduced UVB-induced ROS production

Human fibroblast

[86]

Sargassum thunbergi

Thunbergols

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[87]

Sargassum vulgare

Methanol extract

Antioxidant

β-carotene bleaching activity

In vitro

[88]

Stoechospermum marginatum

Spatane diterpenoids

Anticancer

Cell growth inhibition

Murine B16F10 melanoma cells

[89]

Turbinaria conoides

Laminarin, alginate, fucoidan

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

N/A

[33]

Turbinaria ornata

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

High FRAP value (>10 µM/µg of extract)

In vitro

[90]

Undaria pinnatifida

Fucoxanthin

Anti-aging

MMP expression reduction, VEGF

Mouse

[50]

Ethyl acetate extract

Anti-melanogenic

Down regulate melanin and inhibit tyrosinase

Mouse B16 melanoma cells

[91]

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

Anti-inflammation

N/A

Mouse ear edema and erythema

[92]

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[70]

Red algae

Alsidium corallinum

Methanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus

[93]

Bangia

Algae extract

Antioxidant

Induce peroxidase and superoxide dismutase to reduce oxidative stress

In vitro

[94]

Bryothamnion triquetrum

Methanol extract

Antioxidant

DPPH (EC50 = 0.357) & ABTS (EC50 = 0.370) inhibitions

In vitro

[80]

Ceramium rubrum

Methanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus

[93]

Chondrocanthus acicularis

Methanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

E. coli, K. pneumoniae, E. faecalis, S. aureus

[93]

Chondrus canaliculatus

Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[95]

Chondrus crispus

Aqueous extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Salmonella Enteritidis

[96]

Corallina pilulifera

Methanol extract

Anti-aging

Antioxidant

Reduce the expression of gelatinase

Inhibit free radical oxidation

Human dermal fibroblast

Human fibrosarcoma (HT-1080)

[97]

Corallina vancouverensis

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Ganonema farinosum

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Gelidium crinaale

Fat-soluble vitamin and carotenoids

Antioxidant

High fat-soluble vitamin and carotenoid content

In vitro

[57]

Gelidium robustum

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Gracilaria gracilis

Phenol

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[98]

Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis

Sulfated polysaccharide

Antioxidant

DPPH, Superoxide radical assay, hydroxyl radical assay (EC50 = 2.45 mg/mL)

In vitro

[99]

Gracilaria salicornia

2H- chromenyl

Antioxidant

Anti-inflammation

DPPH and ABTS inhibitions

COX-1 inhibition

In vitro

[100]

Jania rubens

Glycosaminoglycan

Anti-aging

Collagen synthesis

Unknown

[75]

Laurencia caspica

Phenol

Ethanol extract

Antioxidant

Antimicrobial

DPPH inhibition

Bacterial growth inhibition

In vitro

Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeroginosa

[101]

Laurencia luzonensis

Sesquiterpenes

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Bacillus megaterium

[12]

Laurenicia obtusa

Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

DPPH (IC50 = 24 µg/mL), FRAP (IC50 = 92 µg/mL),

Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (IC50 = 113 µg/mL)

In vitro

[102]

Laurenicia pacifica

Laurinterol

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Staphylococcus aureus

[9]

Laurencia rigida

Sesquiterpenes

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Bacillus megaterium

[12]

Meristotheca dakarensis

Glycosaminoglycan

Anti-aging

Collagen synthesis

Unknown

[75]

Osmundaria obtusilo

Methanol extract

Antioxidant

DPPH (EC50 = 0.041 mg/mL), ABTS (EC50 = 0.031 mg/mL), Metal chelating (EC50 = 0.1 mg/mL), folin ciocalteu (EC50 = 0.128 mg/mL)

In vitro

[80]

Palisada flagellifera

Methanol extract

Antioxidant

β-carotene bleaching activity

In vitro

[88]

Palmaria palmata

MAA

Anti-aging

Collagenase inhibition

Clostridium histolyticum

[53]

Polysiphonia howei

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

High FRAP value

(>5 µM/µg of extract)

In vitro

[90]

Porphyra haitanensis

Sulfated Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

Mice

[103]

Porphyra umbilicalis

MAA

Anti-aging

Control expression of MMP

Human dermal fibroblast

[16]

Porphyra sp.

MAA

Anti-aging

Collagenases inhibition

Clostridium histolyticum

[53]

Porphyra yezoensis

MAA

Polyphenol

Phycoerythrin

Antioxidant

Anticancer

Anti-inflammation

ROS scavenging potential and MMP expression

Induce apoptosis

Suppression of mast cells

Human skin fibroblast

HaCaT cells

Rat

[51]

Pterocladia capillacea

Sulfated polysaccharide

Antimicrobial

N/A

Staphylococcus aureus

Escherichia coli

[104]

Pyropia columbia

Phenol

Antioxidant

DPPH, β-carotene bleaching and ABTS inhibitions

Piaractus mesopotamicus

[105]

Pyropia yezoensis

Polysaccharide

Anti-aging

Promote collagen synthesis

Human dermal fibroblast

[106]

Rhodomela confervoides

Polyphenol

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Candida albicans

Mucor ramaniannus

[17]

Bromophenol

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[107]

Schizymenia dubyi

Phenol

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase activity

In vitro

[39]

Green algae

Bryopsis plumose

Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[108]

Chaetomorpha antennia

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition (63.77%)

In vitro

[109]

Chlamydomonas hedleyi

MAA

Antioxidant

Anti-aging

Anti-inflammation

ROS scavenging potential

Increase UV-suppressed genes (procollagen C proteinase enhancer and elastin) expression

Reduce COX-2 and involucrin expression

In vitro

HaCaT cells

HaCaT cells

[52]

Cladophora sp.

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Codium amplivesiculatum

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Codium cuneatum

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Codium fragile

Sterol

Anti-inflammation

Reduces the expression of COX-2, iNOS, and TNF-α

Mice

[110]

Codium simulans

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, S. pyogenes

[56]

Entromorpha intestinalis

Chloroform and methanol extract

Antioxidant

SOD activity is reduced

Labidochromis caeruleus

[111]

Enteromorpha linza

Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[108]

Gayralia oxysperma

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

High FRAP value

(>6 µM/µg of extract)

In vitro

[90]

Ulva dactilifera

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

S. aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes

[56]

Ulva fasciata

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition (83.95%)

In vitro

[109]

Ulva lactuca

Phycocolloids

Anti-inflammation

N/A

N/A

[75]

Ulva pertusa

Polysaccharide

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[108]

Ulva prolifera

Phenol and flavonoid

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition, high phenolic and flavonoid contents

In vitro

[112]

Ulva rigida

Phenol

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[113]

Ulva sp.

Sulfated polysaccharide

Anti-aging

Increase hyaluronan production

Human dermal fibroblast

[114]

Microalgae/Cyanobacteria

Anabaena vaginicola

Lycopene

Antioxidant

Anti-aging

N/A

In vitro

[115]

Arthrospira platensis

Methanol extracts of exopolysaccharides

Antioxidant

N/A

In vitro

[115]

Chlorella fusca

Sporopollenin

Anti-aging

Protect cells from UV radiation

N/A

[116]

Chlorella minutissima

MAA

Anti-aging

Protect cells from UV radiation

N/A

[116]

Chlorella sorokiniana

MAA

Anti-aging

Protect cells from UV radiation

N/A

[116]

Lutein

Anti-aging

Reduce UV induced damage

N/A

[33]

Chlorella vulgaris

Hot water extract

Anti-aging

Reduced activity of SOD

Human diploid fibroblast

[117]

Anti-inflammation

Downregulated mRNA expression levels of IL-4 and IFN-γ

NC/Nga mice

[118]

Dunaliella salina

β-carotene

Antioxidant

Protect against oxidative stress

Rat

[119]

β-cryptoxanthin

Anti-inflammation

Reduced the production of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, the protein expression of iNOS and COX-2

LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

[120]

Haematococcus pluvialis

Astaxanthin (carotenoid)

Anti-aging

Inhibit MMP expression

Mice and human dermal fibroblasts

[121]

Anticancer

ROS scavenging potential

Mice

[122]

Nannochloropsis granulata

Carotenoid

Antioxidant

DPPH inhibition

In vitro

[123]

Nannochloropsis oculata

Zeaxanthin

Anti-melanogenic

Inhibit tyrosinase

In vitro

[124]

Nitzschia sp.

Fucoxanthin

Antioxidant

Reduced oxidative stress

Human Glioma Cells

[125]

Nostoc sp.

MAA

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[126]

Odontella aurita

EPA

Antioxidant

Reduce oxidative stress

Rat

[127]

Planktochlorella nurekis

Fatty acid

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

Campylobacter jejuni, E. coli, Salmonella enterica var.

[128]

Porphyridium sp.

Sulfated polysaccharide

Anti-inflammation

Antioxidant

Inhibit proinflammatory modulator

Inhibited oxidative damage

Unknown

3T3 cells

[103]

Rhodella reticulata

Sulfated polysaccharide

Antioxidant

ROS scavenging potential

In vitro

[103]

Skeletonema marinoi

Polyunsaturated aldehyde and fatty acid

Anticancer

Inhibit cell proliferation

Human melanoma cells (A2058)

[129]

Spirulina platensis

β-carotene and phycocyanin

Antioxidant

Anti-inflammation

Inhibit lipid peroxidation

Inhibit TNF-α and IL-6 expressions

Mouse

Human dermal fibroblast cells (CCD-986sk)

[130]

Ethanol extract

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Aspergillus niger

[131]

Synechocystis spp.

Fatty acids and phenols

Antimicrobial

Bacterial growth inhibition

E. coli and S. aureus

[68]

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/md18060323

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