A solar photovoltaic (PV) system is an electrical system that converts incident solar radiation directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect, in which photons absorbed by a semiconductor generate electron–hole pairs that are separated by a junction to produce direct-current electricity ^[1]. The fundamental conversion unit is the solar cell, a large-area semiconductor diode—most commonly based on crystalline silicon—whose p–n junction produces a photocurrent when illuminated and whose current–voltage characteristic defines its short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and maximum power point ^[2]. A complete PV system combines PV modules (interconnected arrays of cells) with balance-of-system components—including mounting structures, wiring, maximum-power-point-tracking electronics, and inverters that convert the generated direct current to alternating current for grid connection or off-grid storage ^[1]. The system is distinguished from solar thermal systems, which convert sunlight into heat rather than electricity, and from other power-generation sources by the direct solid-state conversion of photon energy to electrical energy without moving thermodynamic cycles ^[2]. The electrical output of a module is characterized under standardized reference irradiance and temperature conditions so that different systems can be compared on a common basis ^[3].