Impaired cognitive development under risk conditions depends on different factors and how much they affect one another. Common causes compromising the cognitive and central nervous system (CNS) are often observed in disadvantaged social groups such as rural entities living in poverty [1]. The emergence of developmental cognitive neuroscience in the field of rurality research is both revolutionary and difficult; it represents difficulties stemming from both implicit and overt assumptions underlying this discipline. It requires a variety of rational theoretical alternatives for hypothetical psychological processes. The studies in this field might relate to particular brain functions and how various experimental events at various levels are connected. Studies reveal evidence of low socioeconomic status as a factor influencing neurocognitive differences between children from different socioeconomic backgrounds [2], including academic achievement and psychiatric outcomes but particularly language and executive functioning [3,4]. Neuroimaging studies have consistently evidenced patterns of association between socioeconomic status and brain development [5]; however, compared to other neuroimaging techniques, electroencephalography (EEG) is a viable clinical diagnostic and research technique. It is economically accessible, non-invasive, functionally sensitive, temporarily precise, and continuously improved for further complex feature extraction in different clinical conditions [6,7]. Classification methods for the sensitive detection of differences between normal and cognitively impaired subjects through the analysis of the electrical activity in the brain have been explored and have shown good reliability, even using a small number of electrodes [8,9]. The EEG functionally probes the CNS to obtain a real-time record of electrical activity [10]. The origin of these electrical signals is in the pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex; each neuron contains an electrical dipole that can be inhibitory or excitatory depending on the cell [11]. In this way, the method collects and records spectral information about the electrical activity from different brain regions through electrodes placed on the surface of the skull to capture the potential difference between them [12]. The standard EEG is a non-invasive, painless technique in which surface electrodes are attached to the scalp by a conductive gel and positioned according to the international 10–20 system. The voltage is measured between two electrodes. Usually, 16 to 24 electrodes are used for clinical purposes [13,14]; however, for research purposes, the number of electrodes can reach 128 electrode channels. Today, digital amplifiers are used, which facilitates signal analysis and storage as well as the ability to change parameters such as filters, sensitivity, recording time, and settings. A standard EEG, including activation techniques, primarily intermittent photostimulation and hyperventilation, should last at least 30 min [15]. These techniques are designed to provoke or enhance the appearance of abnormalities in brain activity. Neuron-related potentials recorded in the EEG are derived from the electrical activity of excitable tissues and gathered by measuring the potential difference between a scanner electrode and a reference electrode to investigate the biophysical basis of potentials of neuronal origin.

On the other hand, the conditions of rural development are part of society’s history. They are not a new public health concern. However, most diagnoses related to brain maturation, specifically using EEG techniques, prevention, or treatment methods, are often developed and implemented in urban facilities, leading to challenges for rural living children [16,17]. Rurality in definition has wide variance; the Office Management and Budget (OMB) and other census institutions are often good resources for defining conditions for rural development. Accordingly, a rural area is defined as a nonmetropolitan area in which there is neither a city nor an urbanized area with 50,000 or more inhabitants, and the culture of the population who live in this condition is shaped by density, geography, agricultural heritage, economic conditions [18], social styles [19], religion, behavioral norms, and health care. Usually, there is a significant distance to health care services, different from urban communities [20], particularly neuropsychology and psychophysiology practice in rural settings [21], as well environmental factors that affect the nervous system like air pollution [22]. Rural areas represent disparities in health risk factors compared to urban residential assets. Rural residents usually demonstrate higher smoking rates and crude alcohol consumption [23]. The status of poverty or malnutrition is associated with behavioral conditions, such as depression in children [24]. A growing body of research shows that the fetal environment affects brain development and determines the brain’s trajectory throughout the lifespan, particularly factors such as fetal alcohol exposure, teratogen exposure, and nutrient deficiencies [25].

These issues considerably influence and mold behavioral, mental health, and cognitive features. For example, the impact of mental health disorders and cognitive impairment in rural areas is higher compared to urban areas [26]. Children lack basic assets for a good quality of life, directly related to risk-taking behaviors and non-optimal cognitive development [27]. The literature suggests that neonatal mortality and morbidity are higher in rural and marginalized regions due to economic constraints, the absence of specialized obstetric and neonatal services, and the lack of awareness of the dangers to maternal and fetal health during pregnancy [28], which are linked to a higher prevalence of risk factors for early brain damage such as very preterm birth, low birth weight, hypoxic–ischemic encephalopathy, exposure to substances and maternal diseases, as well as septic processes [29]. In the case of the presence of early signs of neonatal seizures, EEG monitoring provides predictors related to unfavorable neurological signs, particularly in infants who experienced perinatal risks [30]. All these variables have been associated with an increased risk of neurocognitive developmental disorders.

Rural children, as compared with urban, show lower accuracy in visuospatial tasks measured by global and local visual features recognition and speed processing; they also present difficulties in internal image objects and visual memory [31]. According to this study, the lower abilities in visual feature processing relate to other neuropsychological domains such as letter processing, leading to the possibility of developing dyslexia, which according to Barbeiro and collaborators [32] is a widely underestimated neurodevelopmental disorder. A systematic review from Cainelli and collaborators [33] proposes that although learning disorders such as dyslexia have been widely studied, their brain electrophysiological causes remain not completely understood. In the report, they found most of the studies using spectral analysis of the EEG in resting states, including the specifics for activation or decrease in different brain lobes, as well as the non/significant differences.

Living in rural areas is not a cognitive or central nervous system (CNS) development risk factor per se. However, this condition is frequently associated with exposure to pesticides affecting health [41], low-income [42], malnutrition in children and their parents [43], conditions which may directly or indirectly lead to cognitive impairment and electrophysiological abnormalities (Figure 2). Previous research seeking to describe an association between rurality and risk factors affecting mental health has shown that low schooling is the main related factor [44]. This problem is increased with the characteristics of rural communities that challenge the neuropsychological service delivery due to resource limitations, distance and costs, professional isolation, and beliefs about psychological services that reduce reliability all over these services [21].