Cathode Materials of Sodium-Ion Batteries: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Contributor:
Thang Phan Nguyen
,
Il Tae Kim

Emerging energy storage systems have received significant attention along with the development of renewable energy, thereby creating a green energy platform for humans. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are commonly used, such as in smartphones, tablets, earphones, and electric vehicles. However, lithium has certain limitations including safety, cost-effectiveness, and environmental issues. Sodium is believed to be an ideal replacement for lithium owing to its infinite abundance, safety, low cost, environmental friendliness, and energy storage behavior similar to that of lithium. Inhered in the achievement in the development of LIBs, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have rapidly evolved to be commercialized. Among the cathode, anode, and electrolyte, the cathode remains a significant challenge for achieving a stable, high-rate, and high-capacity device. 

  • sodium-ion batteries
  • cathode materials
  • inorganic cathodes
  • organic cathodes

1. Introduction

The invention of batteries has played a key role in the development of miniaturized electrical devices. In particular, the use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) allows portable devices to continuously operate with no, or rarely occurring, disruptions [1]. LIBs are currently used in smartphones, tablets, notebooks, and vehicles. The significant achievement of LIBs is owing to the strong activity of lithium-ion insertion and desertion in storage materials with a high specific capacity (approximately 3860 mAh g−1) [2][3][4][5]. However, with an increase in capacity, various issues associated with LIBs need to be overcome, including safety, toxicity, and cost-effectiveness [6][7][8][9][10]. Meanwhile, sodium is abundantly available on Earth and has similar properties to lithium in storage devices, which is why it is receiving notable attention [11]. The use of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) reduces the danger of lithium owing to its strong activation; furthermore, the cost and environmental issues can also be resolved [9][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. Considering the development of LIBs, SIBs have become a promising alternative to LIBs. The working mechanisms of LIBs and SIBs are based on the storage of Li and Na ions in two materials with different potentials separated by an electrolyte, as shown in Figure 1. The insertion and desertion of Na ions in the anode and cathode through the electrolyte create and reduce the potential between the two electrodes, corresponding to charge and discharge processes, respectively. Anode materials can also undergo conversion reactions that react with Na ions, forming alloy states that allow high capacities, such as in expanded graphite (284 mAh g−1), TiO2-based anodes (200–300 mAh g−1), antimony sulfides (Sb2S3) (730 mAh g−1), Sn4P3 (>1100 mAh g−1), and phosphorous with a theoretical capacity of ~2596 mAh g−1, among others [23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. However, the development of a sodium cathode continues to present limitations such as an unstable and low capacity of 100–200 mAh g−1. SIB cathode materials include a variety of inorganic compounds (metal oxides, phosphates, pyrophosphates, etc.) and organic or organometallic materials [31][32]. Although achievements have been reported for SIBs and they are being commercialized, the current cathode material has been significantly improved and developed to have better electrochemical properties [33][34][35].
Materials 16 06869 g001
Figure 1. Schematic of the simple operation of a sodium-ion battery employing a layered cathode and graphene anode.

2. SIB Cathode Materials

2.1. Inorganic Compounds

2.1.1. Layered Oxide Materials (NaxMO2)

The layered oxide materials used for SIBs mostly consist of transition-metal oxides [36]. There are two common phases of NaMO2, which are the O3 and P2 phases, classified based on the different stacking of the oxygen ion frameworks as ABCABCABC (O3) or ABBAABBA (P2) [37][38]. In addition, the O2 phase and birnessite are the layered structures with the tightest and loosest packing, respectively [39][40][41]. Among these phases, O3 phase can provide a high Na content and high specific capacity, which enables its application in full cells. However, the degradation of structure during cycling limits its application. To maintain structure, foreign metals with a large ionic radius such as Fe, Cr, Ti, and V can be used introduced [42]. On the other hand, P2 phase has a lower Na content but a wider layer spacing, which leads to faster diffusion of Na+ ions and improves structural stability during cycling. Similar to LIBs, compounds of Na with Co, Ni, and Mn oxides have layered structures, such as NaxCoO2, NaxNiO2, and NaxMnO2 [43][44][45][46]. However, owing to the large size of Na ions, the behavior of CoO6 or NiO6 in the lattice with the intercalation of Na varies from that of Li [47]. NaxCoO2 and NaxNiO2 compounds have exhibited low capacities below or near 100 mAh g−1 [48][49]. Reddy et al. fabricated P2-NaxCoO2 using the sol–gel method, capable of delivering a capacity of approximately 121 mAh g−1 at a rate of 0.1 C [50]. Similarly, NaNiO2 exhibits a capacity of only approximately 80 mAh g−1 [51]. Meanwhile, NaxMnO2 is a more promising cathode material owing to the multiple oxidation states of the Mn ions in the zigzag layers of the edge-sharing MnO6; therefore, this cathode exhibits a high theoretical capacity of approximately 240 mAh g−1 [52][53][54]. NaxMnO2 can be synthesized from either NaOH and Mn salt or MnO2. Ma et al. used monoclinic NaMnO2 as a cathode for SIBs and demonstrated a high first discharge capacity of approximately 185 mAh g−1 in the 2–3.8 V range [55].
The drawback of layered materials is their unstable structure in air storage and during cycling; therefore, their capacities can be rapidly or irreversibly degraded [56][57]. Due to its hygroscopic nature, NaMO2 is unstable in air and in moist environments; therefore, its applications are limited. To improve the performance of NaMnO2, the partial replacement of Mn with other metals, such as Li, Ni, Co, Al, Fe, and Zn, has been investigated [58][59][60][61][62][63][64]. Kwon et al. proposed the use of a P2-NaLiMnO2 cathode material that exhibited a high reversible capacity of approximately 160 mAh g−1 [58]. The insertion of Li ions as dopants led to an inhomogeneous electrostatic repulsion between the Mn and Na ions, thereby enhancing the stability of β-Na0.7[Mn1-xLix]O2+y, which exhibited a stable cycling capacity for over 120 cycles without a faded capacity. Liu et al. investigated the use of P2-Na2/3Ni1/3Mn2/3O2 as a cathode material for SIBs simply synthesized via a novel sol–gel method (NSG) by employing polystyrene as an additive. The main active metal is Ni with Ni2+/Ni4+ states that contribute to the redox-pair peaks at a voltage between 3.0–4.0 V and a minor Mn3+/Mn4+ redox potential between at 2.0–3.0 V. Meanwhile, Mn4+ effectively maintains the structure of NaNiMnO2, thereby significantly improving its stability. At voltages below 2.0 V, the Mn4+ ions were activated and reduced to Mn3+, suffered a disproportional reaction, and dispersed into the electrolyte (Mn3+ solid → Mn4+ solid → Mn2+ electrolyte), and the redox at ~4.0–4.5 V was related to the phase transition from P2 to O2 phase due to the stacking faults. Therefore, the material can be rapidly degraded below 2 V. The NSG Na2/3Ni1/3Mn2/3O2 cathode exhibited a reversible capacity of approximately 100 mAh g−1 and an excellent rate performance even at rates of 5 C and 10 C.
A combination of more than three metals was also investigated, including NaLiNiMnCoO2, NaLiNiMnO2, NaFeMnTiVO2, and NaMnNiCuMgTiO2 [65][66][67][68]. Kataoka et al. prepared a multi-metal complex of NaLiNiMnCoO2 via co-precipitation and electrochemical ion-exchange methods [65]. The produced Na0.95Li0.15(Ni0.15Mn0.55Co)O2 was then employed as a highly stable cathode which delivered a capacity of greater than 200 mAh g−1 for over 40 cycles. Xu et al. investigated the effect of Li ions on NaLiNiMnO2 cathodes in SIBs and determined the importance of each element as follows [67]: The Ni metal was fully oxidized to Ni4+ to balance the overall charge of the cell, which also prevented the Jahn–Teller distortion owing to the active Mn3+. Moreover, Ni ions also contributed to the high-voltage redox state of the cathode, widening the range of the working potential from 2.0 to 4.4 V. Li ions were found surrounding Ni4+ through NMR resonance methods, which indicated that Li could easily migrate to this material. The remaining Li during cycling enhanced the capacity retention; therefore, this cathode delivered a high reversible capacity of 140 mAh g−1 in the 2.0–4.4 V range.
In addition to Co-, Ni-, and Mn-based metal oxide cathodes, Cr-, Cu-, and Fe-based oxides have also received significant attention [69][70][71][72][73][74]. Yu et al. developed carbon-coated NaCrO2 as a SIB cathode via an emulsion-drying method that exhibited an excellent performance at a high rate of 50 C with a capacity of approximately 100 mAh g−1 [69]. The NaCrO2 cathode also demonstrated significant thermal stability up to 400 °C. At temperatures above 290 °C, instead of oxygen evolution owing to the thermal decomposition, NaCrO2 decomposed to Na0.5CrO2 and CrO2 phases. Moreover, Na0.5CrO2 continued to exhibit a stable layered structure from the insertion and desertion of the Na ions. NaxCuO2 and NaxFeO2 also have layered structures and deliver a capacity of approximately 100–200 mAh g−1 [70][71][75][76]. 

2.1.2. Tunnel Oxides

The NaxMO2 tunnel oxide consists of M4+ and M3+ ions at the MO6 and MO5 sites, respectively [77][78][79][80]. The mixing of MO6 and MO5 creates a tunnel structure that allows Na+ ions to easily diffuse along the tunnels. This structure was first discovered by Parant et al. (1971) for NaxMnO2 (x < 1) [81]. It is worth noting that this structure was simply synthesized using various approaches, such as sol–gel, hydrothermal, spray pyrolysis, and microwave-assisted methods [82][83][84][85]. Na0.44MnO2 is the most noteworthy tunnel oxide owing to its large tunnels, high theoretical capacity of approximately 121 mAh g−1, and high stability [86][87]. He et al. used a polymer-pyrolysis method to fabricate Na0.44MnO2 nanoplates, which exhibited an outstanding capacity of approximately 96 mAh g−1 at a rate of 10 C [88]. However, the capacity of this material could not be improved owing to the fully charged and discharged states of the Na0.22MnO2 and Na0.66MnO2 phases, respectively [86]. Therefore, methods were developed to solve this problem, including cation/anion substitution and surface coating. In cation substitution, Mn4+ can be replaced by Ti, Fe, or Zr or by the partial replacement of Na with Li ions [89][90]. Shi et al. doped Zr ions in Na0.44MNO2 as a high-performance SIB cathode, which exhibited a high capacity of approximately 117 mAh g−1; at a high rate of 5 C, the capacity was reversible at approximately 97 mAh g−1.

2.1.3. Polyanionic Compounds

Phosphate-Based Compound

Polyanionic compounds are generally constructed by a tetrahedral XO4 group with Na and Me (Fe, V, Co, or Mn) or MeOx [91][92][93][94]. Basically, olivine NaFePO4 consists of tetrahedral PO4 and octahedral FeO6 sites, forming a framework that holds Na ions in the lattice or allows the diffusion of Na ions [95]. NaFePO4 is a cost-effective material owing to its abundance of elements and high theoretical capacity of approximately 154 mAh g−1. NaFePO4 exists in two phases: maricite and olivine. The maricite phase is a stable structure with cavities that trap Na ions, preventing their diffusion [91][96]. Meanwhile, the less stable olivine phase has a one-dimensional channel, allowing the diffusion of Na ions through this pathway. Therefore, the olivine phase is more attractive, and improving the stability of this structure with various types of doping has also been investigated [56]. Wang et al. used the DFT simulation method to predict the effect of doping Li into NaFePO4 in both maricite and olivine phases [96]. The results demonstrated that when the Li:Na ratio was above 25%, the olivine phase was more stable than maricite, whereas the presence of Li destabilized the maricite structure.

NASICON

A Na super-ionic conductor (NASICON) can be used as an electrolyte and electrode material owing to its 3D-open framework of NaxM2(PO4)3 (M = V, Fe, Ti, Nb, Zr) [97]. NASICON comprises MO6 and PO4 polyhedral sites in a framework that creates large channels for Na diffusion. This structure was first proposed by Hong and Goodenough in a Na1+xZr2P3-xSixO12 compound (P can be replaced by Si, S, Mo, and As) [98][99]. Owing to its high stability, high Na conductivity, and wide electrochemical windows (1.85–4.9 V vs. Na/Na+), NASICON is also applied as a solid electrolyte in SIBs [100]. The ion exchange of Zr4+ with Li+, K+, and Ag+ was first performed, while Si4+ was stabilized in the structure. As a complete NASICON with three full Na ions, Na3V2(PO4)3 (NVP) quickly received significant attention as a promising candidate material for providing a high probability of sodium insertion and desertion [101][102]. NVP has a theoretical capacity of ~117.6 mAh g−1 and a high redox voltage range of 3.3–3.4 V [103]. Therefore, with the modification process including the addition of conductive carbonaceous materials, NVP conductivity can be enhanced, exhibiting a notable rate performance [104].

2.1.4. Pyrophosphates

Pyrophosphate NaxMP2O7 consists of MO6 (M = V, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni) sites and a P2O7 group (interconnected PO4–PO4) that forms a framework with Na ions [105][106][107][108][109][110]. This framework allows the diffusion of Na ions; therefore, it is also a stable cathode material for SIBs. Barpanda et al. revealed that Na2FeP2O7 was constructed by corner-sharing FeO6–FeO6 to form Fe2O11, which combines with the P2O7 group to form a triclinic structure [111]. After calcination at temperatures above 560 °C, the triclinic Na2PeP2O7 transformed into a monoclinic phase, which improved the stability of this material during cycling. Kim et al. used the defect engineering of Na in Na2CoP2O7 to produce a high-voltage cathode for SIBs [112]. The deficiency of the Na-stabilized structure of Na2-xCoP2O7 (x > 0.2) was also found in Fe, Ni, and Mg pyrophosphates, such as Na1.66Fe1.17P2O7, Na1.82Ni1.09P2O7, and Na1.82Mg1.09P2O7 [113][114][115][116]. Specifically, Na2-xCo2P2O7 (x > 0.2) achieved a high average voltage of approximately 4.3 V versus Na/Na+ with a specific capacity of approximately 80 mAh g−1. Owing to the similar roles of the V, Fe, Mn, Co, and Ni transition metals in the structure, the replacement of a cheaper metal such as Fe and the improvement of the voltage by using Co and Ni in other pyrophosphate materials were investigated.

2.1.5. Silicates

Silicate compounds, such as lithium orthosilicate Li2FeSiO4 with a theoretical capacity of approximately 300 mAh g−1, generally have a higher theoretical capacity than other polyanions owing to their low molecular weight [117]. Similar to Li2FeSiO4, the sodium silicate Na2MSiO4 compound consists of MO4 (M = Fe, Ni, Mn, Co) and SiO4 sites, forming a framework that allows the diffusion of Na ions [118][119][120]. Silicates were previously popular in the glass industry owing to their high thermal and physical stabilities [121]. Co/Fe-compound sodium silicates were predicted to exhibit anti-site-exchange behavior, promising to be stable electrode materials [122][123]. Na2FeSiO4 is the most promising silicate compound, having a high theoretical capacity of approximately 276 mAh g−1 [124].

2.2. Organic Compounds

The development of flexible devices and environmentally friendly materials has encouraged the application of organic compounds as cathode materials in energy storage systems, such as LIBs and SIBs [125]. Ranging from small molecules to high-molecular polymers, organic materials are promising for applications in green renewable energy in the future. For example, the molecular structure of Na4C8H2O6 (2,5-dihydroxyterephthalic acid, NaDTA) was investigated as a SIB cathode material at working potential windows of approximately 1.6–2.8 V versus Na/Na+ and delivered a high capacity of approximately 180 mAh g−1 [126]. NaDTA can also be used as an anode material with a capacity greater than 200 mAh g−1 owing to it binding up to six Na ions [127]. Kim et al. demonstrated the use of C6Cl4O2 (tetrachloro-1,4-benzoquinone) in a porous carbon template as a cathode of SIBs. The carbon skeleton-supported C6Cl4O2 cathode exhibited a high initial capacity of approximately 160 mAh g−1 and an average voltage of approximately 2.72 V. Wang et al. produced a polymer from perylene 3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA), and 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride, which contained C=O bindings, providing interactions with Na+ ions as a cathode for SIBs. This polymer demonstrated a high reversible capacity of approximately 150 mAh g−1 at a working voltage of 1.5–3.5 V and a long lifetime of over 5000 cycles, retaining 87.5% of the capacity in comparison to the initial cycle.

2.3. Metal–Organic Compounds: Prussian Blue Analogs

The combination of inorganic and organic structures has received considerable attention owing to the advantages of both material types [128]. Inorganic materials have a stable structure and high conductivity, whereas organic materials are eco-friendly, easy to process, and safe to use. Recently, the development of organometallic materials in framework structures has introduced an advanced technique for material design, enabling the discovery of new composite properties for metals and organics. Metal–organic frameworks (MOF) can form a tremendous structure from various metal–organic compounds, providing large channels that allow the capture of ions or molecules; therefore, they have been used in various applications, including drug delivery, catalysis, and energy storage [129][130][131]. Simple and famous MOFs used for energy storage are Prussian blue analogs (PBAs), which are alkaline metal ferrocyanides AxMFe(CN)6 (A = Na, K; M = Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu) [132]. The CN, Fe, and M matrices create a cage-like structure, holding the Na and K ions. PBAs generally exhibit a face-centered cubic structure (Fm3-m) [133][134][135]. The performance of PBAs in SIBs is based on the redox reactions of Fe2+/Fe3+ and the metal M, believed to have a high theoretical capacity of approximately 170 mAh g−1 for SIBs [136]. The basic PBA, which is Na4Fe(CN)6, contains the highest number of Na ions; however, it is a soluble compound that is easily degraded during cycling [137][138]. Therefore, Yang et al. demonstrated a solid solution of Na4Fe(CN)6/NaCl in a SIB that exhibited a capacity of approximately 75 mAh g−1 [139].

3. Summary

LIBs have become popular in portable devices, vehicles, and energy storage systems for renewable energy. Owing to the abundance of Na, SIBs are believed to be an ideal replacement for LIBs. As shown in Figure 2, each type of cathode material has its advantages and disadvantages. For instance, layered metal oxides have a high capacity and low cost but are sensitive to moisture and structural degradation. Prussian blue is more stable but the effect of water molecules in the structure affects its performance. Organic cathode materials have a good flexibility and stable redox potential but their lower conductivity, thermal stability, and dissolvability in the electrolyte should be resolved. Therefore, the advantages and disadvantages of each practical condition should be carefully considered. To improve their performance, the approach methods were also varied for each type of material. Due to an instability in structure of layered metal oxide cathodes, they were fast degraded during cycling. To stabilize structural stability, inactive metals such as V, Mg, Zn, and Ca can be doped to the lattice, or anions like F can be added [140][141]. Considering a tunnel metal oxide, control of the tunnel size optimizes its capacity. Meanwhile, for polyanionic compounds such as NASICON or other phosphate-based compounds, defect engineering can be considered, including metal- and F-doping methods [142]. Silicate compounds are low-cost and eco-friendly metal sources, and their high capacity needs to improve the structural stability before commercialization [143]. The surfaces of inorganic compounds can be passivated using a carbon-coating method that not only enhances their conductivity but also protects against the effects of humidity or expansion during the insertion of Na ions. The stability of Prussian blue and other organometallic compounds can be enhanced by using a host material such as Ni foam or a porous carbon skeleton [144]. Organic materials can be designed to have a good structure to enhance capacity and conductivity but they remain in the activation group with C=O, C=C, or C=N. Sulfurization and other cross-linking methods can also be considered to yield better combinations [145]. In addition, the use of additives in the electrolyte is another approach to enhance stability, in which the solid electrolyte interface from cycling can be used as a protective layer [146]. Along with the development of electrode materials and electrolytes, SIBs have been commercialized with layered oxides, polyanions, and Prussian blue types [32]. These materials are simple to manufacture (hydrothermal, co-precipitation method, etc.) and inexpensive, and they mainly use Mn and Fe metals and add Ni, Zn, or Mg, to increase stability, and conductive carbon is introduced for air stability and structural protection. Organic materials with low thermal stability and conductivity are utilized for some specific purposes that require biocompatible and/or specified applications. Therefore, it is considered that most of the developed materials have the potential to be commercialized if SIBs can solve current issues such as cost-effectiveness, high capacity, high stability, and high rate performance.
Materials 16 06869 g009
Figure 2. Comparison of SIB cathode materials’ (a) specific capacity and working potential; (b) specific capacity, cost-effectiveness, potential, stability, and safety issues.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ma16216869

References

  1. Mahmud, S.; Rahman, M.; Kamruzzaman, M.; Ali, M.O.; Emon, M.S.A.; Khatun, H.; Ali, M.R. Recent advances in lithium-ion battery materials for improved electrochemical performance: A review. Results Eng. 2022, 15, 100472.
  2. Liu, J.; Bao, Z.N.; Cui, Y.; Dufek, E.J.; Goodenough, J.B.; Khalifah, P.; Li, Q.Y.; Liaw, B.Y.; Liu, P.; Manthiram, A.; et al. Pathways for practical high-energy long-cycling lithium metal batteries. Nat. Energy 2019, 4, 180–186.
  3. Boebinger, M.G.; Yarema, O.; Yarema, M.; Unocic, K.A.; Unocic, R.R.; Wood, V.; McDowell, M.T. Spontaneous and reversible hollowing of alloy anode nanocrystals for stable battery cycling. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2020, 15, 475–481.
  4. Masias, A.; Marcicki, J.; Paxton, W.A. Opportunities and Challenges of Lithium Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6, 621–630.
  5. Walter, M.; Kovalenko, M.V.; Kravchyk, K.V. Challenges and benefits of post-lithium-ion batteries. New J. Chem. 2020, 44, 1677–1683.
  6. Zhang, W.; Zhang, F.; Ming, F.; Alshareef, H.N. Sodium-ion battery anodes: Status and future trends. EnergyChem 2019, 1, 100012.
  7. Li, X.F.; Dhanabalan, A.; Gu, L.; Wang, C.L. Three-Dimensional Porous Core-Shell Sn@Carbon Composite Anodes for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Battery Applications. Adv. Energy Mater. 2012, 2, 238–244.
  8. Hatzell, K.B.; Chen, X.C.; Cobb, C.L.; Dasgupta, N.P.; Dixit, M.B.; Marbella, L.E.; McDowell, M.T.; Mukherjee, P.P.; Verma, A.; Viswanathan, V.; et al. Challenges in Lithium Metal Anodes for Solid-State Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2020, 5, 922–934.
  9. Velumani, D.; Bansal, A. Thermal Behavior of Lithium- and Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Review on Heat Generation, Battery Degradation, Thermal Runway—Perspective and Future Directions. Energy Fuels 2022, 36, 14000–14029.
  10. Ponnada, S.; Kiai, M.S.; Krishnapriya, R.; Singhal, R.; Sharma, R.K. Lithium-Free Batteries: Needs and Challenges. Energy Fuels 2022, 36, 6013–6026.
  11. Abraham, K.M. How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries to Lithium-Ion Counterparts? ACS Energy Lett. 2020, 5, 3544–3547.
  12. Mosallanejad, B.; Malek, S.S.; Ershadi, M.; Daryakenari, A.A.; Cao, Q.; Boorboor Ajdari, F.; Ramakrishna, S. Cycling degradation and safety issues in sodium-ion batteries: Promises of electrolyte additives. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2021, 895, 115505.
  13. Ellis, B.L.; Nazar, L.F. Sodium and sodium-ion energy storage batteries. Curr. Opin. Solid. State Mater. Sci. 2012, 16, 168–177.
  14. Liu, Q.; Zhao, X.; Yang, Q.; Hou, L.; Mu, D.; Tan, G.; Li, L.; Chen, R.; Wu, F. The Progress in the Electrolytes for Solid State Sodium-Ion Battery. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2023, 8, 2200822.
  15. Åvall, G.; Mindemark, J.; Brandell, D.; Johansson, P. Sodium-Ion Battery Electrolytes: Modeling and Simulations. Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1703036.
  16. Wang, B.; Wang, X.; Liang, C.; Yan, M.; Jiang, Y. An All-Prussian-Blue-Based Aqueous Sodium-Ion Battery. ChemElectroChem 2019, 6, 4848–4853.
  17. Palomares, V.; Casas-Cabanas, M.; Castillo-Martínez, E.; Han, M.H.; Rojo, T. Update on Na-based battery materials: A growing research path. Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 6, 2312–2337.
  18. Li, Y.; Wu, F.; Li, Y.; Liu, M.; Feng, X.; Bai, Y.; Wu, C. Ether-based electrolytes for sodium ion batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2022, 51, 4484–4536.
  19. Wang, X.; Roy, S.; Shi, Q.; Li, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, J. Progress in and application prospects of advanced and cost-effective iron (Fe)-based cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2021, 9, 1938–1969.
  20. Lee, J.M.; Singh, G.; Cha, W.; Kim, S.; Yi, J.; Hwang, S.-J.; Vinu, A. Recent Advances in Developing Hybrid Materials for Sodium-Ion Battery Anodes. ACS Energy Lett. 2020, 5, 1939–1966.
  21. Tian, Y.; Zeng, G.; Rutt, A.; Shi, T.; Kim, H.; Wang, J.; Koettgen, J.; Sun, Y.; Ouyang, B.; Chen, T.; et al. Promises and Challenges of Next-Generation “Beyond Li-Ion” Batteries for Electric Vehicles and Grid Decarbonization. Chem. Rev. 2021, 121, 1623–1669.
  22. Hwang, J.-Y.; Myung, S.-T.; Sun, Y.-K. Sodium-ion batteries: Present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3529–3614.
  23. Wen, Y.; He, K.; Zhu, Y.; Han, F.; Xu, Y.; Matsuda, I.; Ishii, Y.; Cumings, J.; Wang, C. Expanded graphite as superior anode for sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 4033.
  24. He, J.; Wei, Y.; Zhai, T.; Li, H. Antimony-based materials as promising anodes for rechargeable lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries. Mater. Chem. Front. 2018, 2, 437–455.
  25. Yu, D.Y.W.; Prikhodchenko, P.V.; Mason, C.W.; Batabyal, S.K.; Gun, J.; Sladkevich, S.; Medvedev, A.G.; Lev, O. High-capacity antimony sulphide nanoparticle-decorated graphene composite as anode for sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2922.
  26. Hwang, J.-Y.; Du, H.-L.; Yun, B.-N.; Jeong, M.-G.; Kim, J.-S.; Kim, H.; Jung, H.-G.; Sun, Y.-K. Carbon-Free TiO2 Microspheres as Anode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2019, 4, 494–501.
  27. Ni, J.; Li, L.; Lu, J. Phosphorus: An Anode of Choice for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 1137–1144.
  28. Durai, L.; Gopalakrishnan, A.; Badhulika, S. Solid-state synthesis of β-NaAlO2 nanoflakes as an anode material for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. Mater. Chem. Front. 2022, 6, 2913–2920.
  29. Nam, K.-H.; Hwa, Y.; Park, C.-M. Zinc Phosphides as Outstanding Sodium-Ion Battery Anodes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 15053–15062.
  30. Xu, H.; Chen, H.; Gao, C. Advanced Graphene Materials for Sodium/Potassium/Aluminum-Ion Batteries. ACS Mater. Lett. 2021, 3, 1221–1237.
  31. He, M.; Davis, R.; Chartouni, D.; Johnson, M.; Abplanalp, M.; Troendle, P.; Suetterlin, R.-P. Assessment of the first commercial Prussian blue based sodium-ion battery. J. Power Sources 2022, 548, 232036.
  32. Yadav, P.; Shelke, V.; Patrike, A.; Shelke, M. Sodium-based batteries: Development, commercialization journey and new emerging chemistries. Oxf. Open Mater. Sci. 2022, 3, itac019.
  33. Wang, M.; Wang, Q.; Ding, X.; Wang, Y.; Xin, Y.; Singh, P.; Wu, F.; Gao, H. The prospect and challenges of sodium-ion batteries for low-temperature conditions. Interdiscip. Mater. 2022, 1, 373–395.
  34. Zhao, L.; Zhang, T.; Li, W.; Li, T.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Z. Engineering of Sodium-Ion Batteries: Opportunities and Challenges. Engineering, 2022; in press.
  35. Xie, J.; Gu, P.; Zhang, Q. Nanostructured Conjugated Polymers: Toward High-Performance Organic Electrodes for Rechargeable Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 1985–1996.
  36. Zuo, W.; Innocenti, A.; Zarrabeitia, M.; Bresser, D.; Yang, Y.; Passerini, S. Layered Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Storage Mechanism, Electrochemistry, and Techno-economics. Acc. Chem. Res. 2023, 56, 284–296.
  37. Xiang, X.; Zhang, K.; Chen, J. Recent Advances and Prospects of Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 5343–5364.
  38. Stansby, J.H.; Sharma, N.; Goonetilleke, D. Probing the charged state of layered positive electrodes in sodium-ion batteries: Reaction pathways, stability and opportunities. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 24833–24867.
  39. Jiang, L.; Dong, M.; Dou, Y.; Chen, S.; Liu, P.; Yin, H.; Zhao, H. Manganese oxides transformed from orthorhombic phase to birnessite with enhanced electrochemical performance as supercapacitor electrodes. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 3746–3753.
  40. Luo, J.; Huang, A.; Park, S.H.; Suib, S.L.; O’Young, C.-L. Crystallization of Sodium-Birnessite and Accompanied Phase Transformation. Chem. Mater. 1998, 10, 1561–1568.
  41. Chen, S.; Liao, Z.; Kang, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zhi, S.; Cai, X.; Yang, W.; Zou, H.; Yang, W. Enhanced cyclic performance of O2-type Mn-based layered oxide via Al doping for lithium-ion battery. J. Alloys Compd. 2022, 910, 164793.
  42. Song, T.; Chen, L.; Gastol, D.; Dong, B.; Marco, J.F.; Berry, F.; Slater, P.; Reed, D.; Kendrick, E. High-Voltage Stabilization of O3-Type Layered Oxide for Sodium-Ion Batteries by Simultaneous Tin Dual Modification. Chem. Mater. 2022, 34, 4153–4165.
  43. Su, D.; Wang, C.; Ahn, H.-J.; Wang, G. Single Crystalline Na0.7MnO2 Nanoplates as Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries with Enhanced Performance. Chem. Eur. J. 2013, 19, 10884–10889.
  44. Shibata, T.; Fukuzumi, Y.; Kobayashi, W.; Moritomo, Y. Fast discharge process of layered cobalt oxides due to high Na+ diffusion. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 9006.
  45. Li, G.; Zhu, W.; Liu, W. First-principles calculations of the Ti-doping effects on layered NaNiO2 cathode materials for advanced Na-ion batteries. J. Indian. Chem. Soc. 2022, 99, 100424.
  46. Kanwade, A.; Gupta, S.; Kankane, A.; Tiwari, M.K.; Srivastava, A.; Kumar Satrughna, J.A.; Chand Yadav, S.; Shirage, P.M. Transition metal oxides as a cathode for indispensable Na-Ion batteries. RSC Adv. 2022, 12, 23284–23310.
  47. Heubner, C.; Matthey, B.; Lein, T.; Wolke, F.; Liebmann, T.; Lämmel, C.; Schneider, M.; Herrmann, M.; Michaelis, A. Insights into the electrochemical Li/Na-exchange in layered LiCoO2 cathode material. Energy Stor. Mater. 2020, 27, 377–386.
  48. Rai, A.K.; Anh, L.T.; Gim, J.; Mathew, V.; Kim, J. Electrochemical properties of NaxCoO2 (x~0.71) cathode for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries. Ceram. Int. 2014, 40, 2411–2417.
  49. Vassilaras, P.; Ma, X.; Li, X.; Ceder, G. Electrochemical Properties of Monoclinic NaNiO2. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2013, 160, A207.
  50. Rami Reddy, B.V.; Ravikumar, R.; Nithya, C.; Gopukumar, S. High performance NaxCoO2 as a cathode material for rechargeable sodium batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015, 3, 18059–18063.
  51. Park, K.; Yu, B.-C.; Goodenough, J.B. Electrochemical and Chemical Properties of Na2NiO2 as a Cathode Additive for a Rechargeable Sodium Battery. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 6682–6688.
  52. Chen, T.; Ouyang, B.; Fan, X.; Zhou, W.; Liu, W.; Liu, K. Oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: Designs, challenges, and perspectives. Carbon. Energy 2022, 4, 170–199.
  53. Zhang, R.; Lu, Z.; Yang, Y.; Shi, W. First-principles investigation of the monoclinic NaMnO2 cathode material for rechargeable Na-ion batteries. Curr. Appl. Phys. 2018, 18, 1431–1435.
  54. Palluzzi, M.; Silvestri, L.; Celeste, A.; Tuccillo, M.; Latini, A.; Brutti, S. Structural Degradation of O3-NaMnO2 Positive Electrodes in Sodium-Ion Batteries. Crystals 2022, 12, 885.
  55. Ma, X.; Chen, H.; Ceder, G. Electrochemical Properties of Monoclinic NaMnO2. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2011, 158, A1307.
  56. Xiao, J.; Li, X.; Tang, K.; Wang, D.; Long, M.; Gao, H.; Chen, W.; Liu, C.; Liu, H.; Wang, G. Recent progress of emerging cathode materials for sodium ion batteries. Mater. Chem. Front. 2021, 5, 3735–3764.
  57. Gupta, P.; Pushpakanth, S.; Haider, M.A.; Basu, S. Understanding the Design of Cathode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 5605–5614.
  58. Kwon, M.-S.; Lim, S.G.; Park, Y.; Lee, S.-M.; Chung, K.Y.; Shin, T.J.; Lee, K.T. P2 Orthorhombic Na0.7O2+y as Cathode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 14758–14768.
  59. Nanthagopal, M.; Ho, C.W.; Shaji, N.; Sim, G.S.; Varun Karthik, M.; Kim, H.K.; Lee, C.W. Enhanced NaFe0.5Mn0.5O2/C Nanocomposite as a Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 984.
  60. Liu, X.; Zuo, W.; Zheng, B.; Xiang, Y.; Zhou, K.; Xiao, Z.; Shan, P.; Shi, J.; Li, Q.; Zhong, G.; et al. P2-Na0.67AlxMn1−xO2: Cost-Effective, Stable and High-Rate Sodium Electrodes by Suppressing Phase Transitions and Enhancing Sodium Cation Mobility. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2019, 58, 18086–18095.
  61. Abou-Rjeily, J.; Bezza, I.; Laziz, N.A.; Neacsa, D.; Autret-Lambert, C.; Ghamouss, F. P2-Na0.67Mn0.85Al0.15O2 and NaMn2O4 Blend as Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries Using a Natural β-MnO2 Precursor. ACS Omega 2021, 6, 1064–1072.
  62. Shi, Q.; Qi, R.; Feng, X.; Wang, J.; Li, Y.; Yao, Z.; Wang, X.; Li, Q.; Lu, X.; Zhang, J.; et al. Niobium-doped layered cathode material for high-power and low-temperature sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 3205.
  63. Zuo, W.; Liu, X.; Qiu, J.; Zhang, D.; Xiao, Z.; Xie, J.; Ren, F.; Wang, J.; Li, Y.; Ortiz, G.F.; et al. Engineering Na+-layer spacings to stabilize Mn-based layered cathodes for sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 4903.
  64. Clément, R.J.; Bruce, P.G.; Grey, C.P. Review—Manganese-Based P2-Type Transition Metal Oxides as Sodium-Ion Battery Cathode Materials. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A2589.
  65. Kataoka, R.; Mukai, T.; Yoshizawa, A.; Sakai, T. Development of High Capacity Cathode Material for Sodium Ion Batteries Na0.95Li0.15(Ni0.15Mn0.55Co0.1)O2. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2013, 160, A933–A939.
  66. Banik, T.; Bhattacharya, I. Novel P2-Type Na0.66Fe0.5-2xMn0.5TixVxO2 Cathode for High-Capacity. In Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts 240; MA2021-02; The Electrochemical Society, Inc.: Pennington, NJ, USA, 2021; p. 238.
  67. Xu, J.; Lee, D.H.; Clément, R.J.; Yu, X.; Leskes, M.; Pell, A.J.; Pintacuda, G.; Yang, X.-Q.; Grey, C.P.; Meng, Y.S. Identifying the Critical Role of Li Substitution in P2–NaxO2 (0 < x, y, z < 1) Intercalation Cathode Materials for High-Energy Na-Ion Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26, 1260–1269.
  68. Fu, F.; Liu, X.; Fu, X.; Chen, H.; Huang, L.; Fan, J.; Le, J.; Wang, Q.; Yang, W.; Ren, Y.; et al. Entropy and crystal-facet modulation of P2-type layered cathodes for long-lasting sodium-based batteries. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 2826.
  69. Yu, C.-Y.; Park, J.-S.; Jung, H.-G.; Chung, K.-Y.; Aurbach, D.; Sun, Y.-K.; Myung, S.-T. NaCrO2 cathode for high-rate sodium-ion batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2015, 8, 2019–2026.
  70. Yabuuchi, N.; Yoshida, H.; Komaba, S. Crystal Structures and Electrode Performance of Alpha-NaFeO2 for Rechargeable Sodium Batteries. Electrochemistry 2012, 80, 716–719.
  71. Ono, Y.; Yui, Y.; Hayashi, M.; Asakura, K.; Kitabayashi, H.; Takahashi, K.I. Electrochemical Properties of NaCuO2 for Sodium-Ion Secondary Batteries. ECS Trans. 2014, 58, 33–39.
  72. Liang, J.; Liu, L.; Liu, X.; Meng, X.; Zeng, L.; Liu, J.; Li, J.; Shi, Z.; Yang, Y. O3-Type NaCrO2 as a Superior Cathode Material for Sodium/Potassium-Ion Batteries Ensured by High Structural Reversibility. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 22635–22645.
  73. Myung, S.-T.; Park, J.s.; Jung, H.-G.; Chung, K.Y.; Aurbach, D.; Yu, C.-y.; Sun, Y.-K. NaCrO2 Cathode for High-Rate Sodium-Ionbatteries. In Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts 230; MA2016-02; The Electrochemical Society, Inc.: Pennington, NJ, USA, 2016; p. 664.
  74. Wang, Z.; Shaw, L. Doping of NaCrO2 Cathode Material to Enhance Electrochemical Performance for Sodium-Ion Batteries. In Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts 239; MA2021-01; The Electrochemical Society, Inc.: Pennington, NJ, USA, 2021; p. 356.
  75. Ono, Y. Structural Analysis of NaCuO2 Cathode at Various Charged/Discharged Stages and Its Reaction Mechanism. Electrochemistry 2018, 86, 309–314.
  76. Lee, E.; Brown, D.E.; Alp, E.E.; Ren, Y.; Lu, J.; Woo, J.-J.; Johnson, C.S. New Insights into the Performance Degradation of Fe-Based Layered Oxides in Sodium-Ion Batteries: Instability of Fe3+/Fe4+ Redox in α-NaFeO2. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 6755–6764.
  77. Feng, J.; Luo, S.; Cai, K.; Yan, S.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, X. Research progress of tunnel-type sodium manganese oxide cathodes for SIBs. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2022, 33, 2316–2326.
  78. Byles, B.; Pomerantseva, E. Stabilization of Tunnel Manganese Oxide Electrodes in Li-Ion and Na-Ion Batteries. In Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts 233; MA2018-01; The Electrochemical Society, Inc.: Pennington, NJ, USA, 2018; p. 2581.
  79. Wang, Y.; Liu, J.; Lee, B.; Qiao, R.; Yang, Z.; Xu, S.; Yu, X.; Gu, L.; Hu, Y.-S.; Yang, W.; et al. Ti-substituted tunnel-type Na0.44MnO2 oxide as a negative electrode for aqueous sodium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 6401.
  80. Oz, E.; Altin, S.; Avci, S. Tunnel/Layer Composite Na0.44MnO2 Cathode Material with Enhanced Structural Stability via Cobalt Doping for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Omega 2023, 8, 27170–27178.
  81. Parant, J.-P.; Olazcuaga, R.; Devalette, M.; Fouassier, C.; Hagenmuller, P. Sur quelques nouvelles phases de formule NaxMnO2 (x ≤ 1). J. Solid. State Chem. 1971, 3, 1–11.
  82. Hosono, E.; Matsuda, H.; Honma, I.; Fujihara, S.; Ichihara, M.; Zhou, H. Synthesis of single crystalline electro-conductive Na0.44MnO2 nanowires with high aspect ratio for the fast charge–discharge Li ion battery. J. Power Sources 2008, 182, 349–352.
  83. Zhou, X.; Guduru, R.K.; Mohanty, P. Synthesis and characterization of Na0.44MnO2 from solution precursors. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 2757–2761.
  84. Shen, K.-Y.; Lengyel, M.; Wang, L.; Axelbaum, R.L. Spray pyrolysis and electrochemical performance of Na0.44MnO2 for sodium-ion battery cathodes. MRS Commun. 2017, 7, 74–77.
  85. Zhang, J.; Yuan, H.; Huang, Y.; Kan, S.; Wu, Y.; Bu, M.; Liu, Y.; He, P.; Liu, H. Engineering sodium-rich manganese oxide with robust tunnel structure for high-performance sodium-ion battery cathode application. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 417, 128097.
  86. Chae, M.S.; Elias, Y.; Aurbach, D. Tunnel-Type Sodium Manganese Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ChemElectroChem 2021, 8, 798–811.
  87. Kim, D.J.; Ponraj, R.; Kannan, A.G.; Lee, H.-W.; Fathi, R.; Ruffo, R.; Mari, C.M.; Kim, D.K. Diffusion behavior of sodium ions in Na0.44MnO2 in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. J. Power Sources 2013, 244, 758–763.
  88. He, X.; Wang, J.; Qiu, B.; Paillard, E.; Ma, C.; Cao, X.; Liu, H.; Stan, M.C.; Liu, H.; Gallash, T.; et al. Durable high-rate capability Na0.44MnO2 cathode material for sodium-ion batteries. Nano Energy 2016, 27, 602–610.
  89. Guo, S.; Yu, H.; Liu, D.; Tian, W.; Liu, X.; Hanada, N.; Ishida, M.; Zhou, H. A novel tunnel Na0.61Ti0.48Mn0.52O2 cathode material for sodium-ion batteries. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 7998–8001.
  90. Xu, S.; Wang, Y.; Ben, L.; Lyu, Y.; Song, N.; Yang, Z.; Li, Y.; Mu, L.; Yang, H.-T.; Gu, L.; et al. Fe-Based Tunnel-Type Na0.61O2 Designed by a New Strategy as a Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1501156.
  91. Tang, W.; Song, X.; Du, Y.; Peng, C.; Lin, M.; Xi, S.; Tian, B.; Zheng, J.; Wu, Y.; Pan, F.; et al. High-performance NaFePO4 formed by aqueous ion-exchange and its mechanism for advanced sodium ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 4882–4892.
  92. Ling, M.; Lv, Z.; Li, F.; Zhao, J.; Zhang, H.; Hou, G.; Zheng, Q.; Li, X. Revisiting of Tetragonal NaVPO4F: A High Energy Density Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 30510–30519.
  93. Gutierrez, A.; Kim, S.; Fister, T.T.; Johnson, C.S. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of NaCoPO4 Red-Phase and Initial Characterization as High Voltage Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 4391–4396.
  94. Priyanka, V.; Savithiri, G.; Subadevi, R.; Sivakumar, M. An emerging electrochemically active maricite NaMnPO4 as cathode material at elevated temperature for sodium-ion batteries. Appl. Nanosci. 2020, 10, 3945–3951.
  95. Mathew, V.; Kim, S.; Kang, J.; Gim, J.; Song, J.; Baboo, J.P.; Park, W.; Ahn, D.; Han, J.; Gu, L.; et al. Amorphous iron phosphate: Potential host for various charge carrier ions. NPG Asia Mater. 2014, 6, e138.
  96. Wang, R.; Wu, S.; Zhang, F.; Zhao, X.; Lin, Z.; Wang, C.-Z.; Ho, K.-M. Stabilizing the crystal structures of NaFePO4 with Li substitutions. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2020, 22, 13975–13980.
  97. Jian, Z.; Yuan, C.; Han, W.; Lu, X.; Gu, L.; Xi, X.; Hu, Y.-S.; Li, H.; Chen, W.; Chen, D.; et al. Atomic Structure and Kinetics of NASICON NaxV2(PO4)3 Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 4265–4272.
  98. Goodenough, J.B.; Hong, H.Y.P.; Kafalas, J.A. Fast Na+-ion transport in skeleton structures. Mater. Res. Bull. 1976, 11, 203–220.
  99. Hong, H.Y.P. Crystal structures and crystal chemistry in the system Na1+xZr2SixP3−xO12. Mater. Res. Bull. 1976, 11, 173–182.
  100. Oh, J.A.S.; He, L.; Plewa, A.; Morita, M.; Zhao, Y.; Sakamoto, T.; Song, X.; Zhai, W.; Zeng, K.; Lu, L. Composite NASICON (Na3Zr2Si2PO12) Solid-State Electrolyte with Enhanced Na+ Ionic Conductivity: Effect of Liquid Phase Sintering. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 40125–40133.
  101. Gopalakrishnan, J.; Rangan, K.K. Vanadium phosphate (V2(PO4)3): A novel NASICO N-type vanadium phosphate synthesized by oxidative deintercalation of sodium from sodium vanadium phosphate (Na3V2(PO4)3). Chem. Mater. 1992, 4, 745–747.
  102. Zhu, Y.; Xu, H.; Ma, J.; Chen, P.; Chen, Y. The recent advances of NASICON-Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. J. Solid. State Chem. 2023, 317, 123669.
  103. Pandit, B.; Sougrati, M.T.; Fraisse, B.; Monconduit, L. Exploration of a Na3V2(PO4)3/C-Pb full cell Na-ion prototype. Nano Energy 2022, 95, 107010.
  104. Zhang, X.; Rui, X.; Chen, D.; Tan, H.; Yang, D.; Huang, S.; Yu, Y. Na3V2(PO4)3: An advanced cathode for sodium-ion batteries. Nanoscale 2019, 11, 2556–2576.
  105. Wei, P.; Chen, W.; Jing, Q.; Lee, M.-H.; Chen, Z. Effects of P2O7 clusters arrangement on second harmonic generation responses of pyrophosphates. J. Alloys Compd. 2020, 827, 153922.
  106. Niu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, M. A review on pyrophosphate framework cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 15006–15025.
  107. Uebou, Y.; Okada, S.; Yamaki, J.-I. Electrochemical insertion of lithium and sodium into (MoO2)2P2O7. J. Power Sources 2003, 115, 119–124.
  108. Gabelica-Robert, M.; Goreaud, M.; Labbe, P.; Raveau, B. The pyrophosphate NaFeP2O7: A cage structure. J. Solid. State Chem. 1982, 45, 389–395.
  109. Barpanda, P.; Lu, J.; Ye, T.; Kajiyama, M.; Chung, S.-C.; Yabuuchi, N.; Komaba, S.; Yamada, A. A layer-structured Na2CoP2O7 pyrophosphate cathode for sodium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 3857–3860.
  110. Barpanda, P.; Ye, T.; Avdeev, M.; Chung, S.-C.; Yamada, A. A new polymorph of Na2MnP2O7 as a 3.6 V cathode material for sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 4194–4197.
  111. Barpanda, P.; Liu, G.; Ling, C.D.; Tamaru, M.; Avdeev, M.; Chung, S.-C.; Yamada, Y.; Yamada, A. Na2FeP2O7: A Safe Cathode for Rechargeable Sodium-ion Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2013, 25, 3480–3487.
  112. Kim, H.; Park, C.S.; Choi, J.W.; Jung, Y. Defect-Controlled Formation of Triclinic Na2CoP2O7 for 4 V Sodium-Ion Batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 6662–6666.
  113. Ha, K.-H.; Woo, S.H.; Mok, D.; Choi, N.-S.; Park, Y.; Oh, S.M.; Kim, Y.; Kim, J.; Lee, J.; Nazar, L.F.; et al. Na4−αM2+α/2(P2O7)2 (2/3 ≤ α ≤ 7/8, M = Fe, Fe0.5Mn0.5, Mn): A Promising Sodium Ion Cathode for Na-ion Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2013, 3, 770–776.
  114. Erragh, F.; Boukhari, A.; Abraham, F.; Elouadi, B. Study of the Crystal Structures of Sodium Magnesium and Sodium Nickel Diphosphates. J. Solid. State Chem. 2000, 152, 323–331.
  115. Liu, G.; Nishimura, S.-I.; Chung, S.C.; Fujii, K.; Yashima, M.; Yamada, A. Defect induced sodium disorder and ionic conduction mechanism in Na1.82Mg1.09P2O7. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2, 18353–18359.
  116. Kim, H.; Shakoor, R.A.; Park, C.; Lim, S.Y.; Kim, J.-S.; Jo, Y.N.; Cho, W.; Miyasaka, K.; Kahraman, R.; Jung, Y.; et al. Na2FeP2O7 as a Promising Iron-Based Pyrophosphate Cathode for Sodium Rechargeable Batteries: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2013, 23, 1147–1155.
  117. Masese, T.; Orikasa, Y.; Tassel, C.; Kim, J.; Minato, T.; Arai, H.; Mori, T.; Yamamoto, K.; Kobayashi, Y.; Kageyama, H.; et al. Relationship between Phase Transition Involving Cationic Exchange and Charge-Discharge Rate in Li2FeSiO4. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26, 1380–1384.
  118. Gao, S.; Zhao, J.; Zhao, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wang, L.; Liu, X.; Rui, Y.; Xu, J. Na2CoSiO4 as a novel positive electrode material for sodium-ion capacitors. Mater. Lett. 2015, 158, 300–303.
  119. Treacher, J.C.; Wood, S.M.; Islam, M.S.; Kendrick, E. Na2CoSiO4 as a cathode material for sodium-ion batteries: Structure, electrochemistry and diffusion pathways. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2016, 18, 32744–32752.
  120. Wang, J.; Hoteling, G.; Shepard, R.; Wahila, M.; Wang, F.; Smeu, M.; Liu, H. Reaction Mechanism of Na-Ion Deintercalation in Na2CoSiO4. J. Phys. Chem. C 2022, 126, 16983–16992.
  121. Pedone, A.; Malavasi, G.; Menziani, M.C.; Cormack, A.N.; Segre, U. A New Self-Consistent Empirical Interatomic Potential Model for Oxides, Silicates, and Silica-Based Glasses. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 11780–11795.
  122. Wu, P.; Wu, S.Q.; Lv, X.; Zhao, X.; Ye, Z.; Lin, Z.; Wang, C.Z.; Ho, K.M. Fe–Si networks in Na2FeSiO4 cathode materials. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2016, 18, 23916–23922.
  123. Bianchini, F.; Fjellvåg, H.; Vajeeston, P. First-principles study of the structural stability and electrochemical properties of Na2MSiO4 (M = Mn, Fe, Co and Ni) polymorphs. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2017, 19, 14462–14470.
  124. Jin, T.; Li, H.; Zhu, K.; Wang, P.-F.; Liu, P.; Jiao, L. Polyanion-type cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2020, 49, 2342–2377.
  125. Schon, T.B.; McAllister, B.T.; Li, P.-F.; Seferos, D.S. The rise of organic electrode materials for energy storage. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2016, 45, 6345–6404.
  126. Wang, H.-G.; Yuan, S.; Ma, D.-L.; Huang, X.-L.; Meng, F.-L.; Zhang, X.-B. Tailored Aromatic Carbonyl Derivative Polyimides for High-Power and Long-Cycle Sodium-Organic Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2014, 4, 1301651.
  127. Wang, S.; Wang, L.; Zhu, Z.; Hu, Z.; Zhao, Q.; Chen, J. All Organic Sodium-Ion Batteries with Na4C8H2O6. Angew. Chem. 2014, 126, 6002–6006.
  128. Wang, D.-Y.; Liu, R.; Guo, W.; Li, G.; Fu, Y. Recent advances of organometallic complexes for rechargeable batteries. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2021, 429, 213650.
  129. Zhao, R.; Liang, Z.; Zou, R.; Xu, Q. Metal-Organic Frameworks for Batteries. Joule 2018, 2, 2235–2259.
  130. Li, X.; Yang, X.; Xue, H.; Pang, H.; Xu, Q. Metal–organic frameworks as a platform for clean energy applications. EnergyChem 2020, 2, 100027.
  131. Du, M.; Li, Q.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, C.-S.; Pang, H. A review of electrochemical energy storage behaviors based on pristine metal–organic frameworks and their composites. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2020, 416, 213341.
  132. Lu, Y.; Wang, L.; Cheng, J.; Goodenough, J.B. Prussian blue: A new framework of electrode materials for sodium batteries. Chem. Commun. 2012, 48, 6544–6546.
  133. Yi, H.; Qin, R.; Ding, S.; Wang, Y.; Li, S.; Zhao, Q.; Pan, F. Structure and Properties of Prussian Blue Analogues in Energy Storage and Conversion Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31, 2006970.
  134. Luo, Y.; Peng, J.; Yin, S.; Xue, L.; Yan, Y. Acid-Assisted Ball Mill Synthesis of Carboxyl-Functional-Group-Modified Prussian Blue as Sodium-Ion Battery Cathode. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1290.
  135. Xie, B.X.; Sun, B.Y.; Gao, T.Y.; Ma, Y.L.; Yin, G.P.; Zuo, P.J. Recent progress of Prussian blue analogues as cathode materials for nonaqueous sodium-ion batteries. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2022, 460, 214478.
  136. Fu, H.; Liu, C.; Zhang, C.; Ma, W.; Wang, K.; Li, Z.; Lu, X.; Cao, G. Enhanced storage of sodium ions in Prussian blue cathode material through nickel doping. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 9604–9610.
  137. Qian, J.F.; Zhou, M.; Cao, Y.L.; Ai, X.P.; Yang, H.X. Nanosized Na4Fe(CN)6/C Composite as a Low-Cost and High-Rate Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2012, 2, 410–414.
  138. Li, W.-J.; Chou, S.-L.; Wang, J.-Z.; Kang, Y.-M.; Wang, J.-L.; Liu, Y.; Gu, Q.-F.; Liu, H.-K.; Dou, S.-X. Facile Method To Synthesize Na-Enriched Na1+xFeFe(CN)6 Frameworks as Cathode with Superior Electrochemical Performance for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 1997–2003.
  139. Yang, D.; Liao, X.-Z.; Huang, B.; Shen, J.; He, Y.-S.; Ma, Z.-F. A Na4Fe(CN)6/NaCl solid solution cathode material with an enhanced electrochemical performance for sodium ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 13417–13421.
  140. Yu, T.-Y.; Sun, Y.-K. A fluorinated O3-type layered cathode for long-life sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2022, 10, 23639–23648.
  141. Zhou, Q.; Wang, L.; Li, W.; Zhao, K.; Liu, M.; Wu, Q.; Yang, Y.; He, G.; Parkin, I.P.; Shearing, P.R.; et al. Sodium Superionic Conductors (NASICONs) as Cathode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2021, 4, 793–823.
  142. Wang, Q.; Wu, X.; You, H.; Min, H.; Xu, X.; Hao, J.; Liu, X.; Yang, H. Template-directed Prussian blue nanocubes supported on Ni foam as the binder-free anode of lithium-ion batteries. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022, 571, 151194.
  143. Kee, Y.; Dimov, N.; Staykov, A.; Okada, S. Investigation of metastable Na2FeSiO4 as a cathode material for Na-ion secondary battery. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2016, 171, 45–49.
  144. Kim, H.; Sadan, M.K.; Kim, C.; Jo, J.; Seong, M.; Cho, K.-K.; Kim, K.-W.; Ahn, J.-H.; Ahn, H.-J. Enhanced reversible capacity of sulfurized polyacrylonitrile cathode for room-temperature Na/S batteries by electrochemical activation. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 426, 130787.
  145. Huang, Z.-X.; Zhang, X.-L.; Zhao, X.-X.; Zhao, Y.-Y.; Aravindan, V.; Liu, Y.-H.; Geng, H.; Wu, X.-L. Electrode/electrolyte additives for practical sodium-ion batteries: A mini review. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2023, 10, 37–48.
  146. Hou, Y.; Jin, J.; Huo, C.; Liu, Y.; Deng, S.; Chen, J. New insights into the critical role of inactive element substitution in improving the rate performance of sodium oxide cathode material. Energy Stor. Mater. 2023, 56, 87–95.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
Video Production Service
Feedback