Silicon Photonics Technology | Encyclopedia MDPI

Silicon Photonics Technology: History

Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Contributor:

Silicon (Si) photonics is a groundbreaking technology that merges the fields of Si microelectronics and photonics to enable the manipulation and transmission of light on a Si chip. It leverages the exceptional properties of Si, such as its high refractive index and compatibility with existing electronic manufacturing processes, to create compact and highly efficient optical devices. Silicon photonics has been an area of active research and development. Researchers have been working on enhancing the integration density and intricacy of silicon photonic circuits. This involves the development of advanced fabrication techniques and novel designs to enable more functionalities on a single chip, leading to higher performance and more efficient systems.

silicon
integrated optics
waveguide
telecommunication
biosensing
gas sensing

1. Introduction

Silicon (Si) photonics is a groundbreaking technology that merges the fields of Si microelectronics and photonics to enable the manipulation and transmission of light on a Si chip. It leverages the exceptional properties of Si, such as its high refractive index and compatibility with existing electronic manufacturing processes, to create compact and highly efficient optical devices. Si photonics has the potential to revolutionize various domains, including telecommunications, data centers, sensing, and biomedical applications ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5], by offering high-speed data transmission, low power use, and integration with electronic systems. Its ability to seamlessly integrate photonics with Si electronics opens new avenues for the development of advanced, scalable, and cost-effective solutions for a wide range of applications.

Si, the second most abundant element on Earth after oxygen, possesses exceptional qualities that make it highly suitable for various applications. Its simple cubic crystal structure allows production of defect-free wafers with remarkable purity. Additionally, Si’s thermal conductivity, hardness, and low density are advantageous in semiconductor devices. At a specific wavelength, Si demonstrates a high refractive index and remains transparent to infrared light. The high refractive index of Si allows the miniaturization of devices to incredibly small scales. Moreover, the well-established techniques used in semiconductor processing can be easily applied to Si photonics, enabling cost-effective mass production. Another advantage of Si is its high-quality native oxide, which offers superior characteristics compared with other semiconductors. The oxide serves as an excellent material for Si waveguide (WG) cladding and can host rare-earth dopants for integrated circuits. By controlling the oxide cladding layer, it becomes possible to manipulate light propagation within Si WGs. These properties collectively position Si photonics as a promising solution for integrating photonic circuits.

Si photonics integrated circuits rely on key components to manipulate and control light signals. WGs guide light through total internal reflection, whereas modulators alter light intensity or phase. Photodetectors convert optical signals to electrical ones, and filters selectively transmit specific wavelengths ^[6]^[7]. Splitters and couplers distribute and combine signals, and optical amplifiers enhance weak signals. These building blocks enable applications in optical communication, data centers, sensing, and biomedical imaging, propelling advancements in photonics technology ^[8].

Researchers have made substantial progress in increasing the sensitivity and limit of detection (LoD) of Si photonic sensors. By enhancing the design of WGs and resonators and incorporating advanced materials, these sensors can now detect even smaller quantities of substances, making them suitable for a wider range of applications, including environmental monitoring, healthcare, and security. The integration of sensors on a single Si chip offers numerous benefits, including reduced size, increased portability, and cost-effectiveness. The ability to combine multiple sensors on a single chip allows for compact and robust sensing platforms that can be easily mass-produced. Moreover, advancements in fabrication techniques, such as nanofabrication and complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible processes, have enabled the cost-effective mass production of Si photonic sensors ^[9]. This scalability has opened new opportunities for commercial applications and broader adoption of the technology.

Although Si photonics offers numerous advantages, it is worth noting that other optical platforms, such as indium phosphide (InP) ^[10], gallium arsenide (GaAs) ^[11], lithium niobate (LiNbO₃) ^[12]^[13], and rubidium titanyl phosphate (RTP) ^[14]^[15], also have their own unique strengths and are preferred for certain specialized applications. The choice of platform depends on factors such as performance requirements, cost considerations, and the specific needs of the application at hand. For more detailed information on optical platforms and fabrication methods, the researchers recommend readers to see ^[16].

2. History

Since the 1970s, researchers have envisioned an optical super chip with integrated optical components ^[17]. Early studies focused on ferroelectric materials such as lithium niobate (LiNbO₃) and III-V semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP). LiNbO₃ stood out for its significant electrooptic coefficient, enabling optical modulation through the Pockels effect. Meanwhile, the III-V compounds offered advantages in terms of laser fabrication, optical amplification, and electronic integration. Si’s widespread use as the preferred semiconductor in electronics prompted researchers to explore the possibilities of Si photonic circuits. This was mainly driven by the potential benefits of integrating photonics and electronics cost effectively. Si has a high refractive index compared with other common materials used in photonics. This property allows for strong light confinement and efficient light guiding within Si WGs and resonators. Consequently, Si photonic components can be designed on a small scale due to the strong confinement of light within Si WGs. This compactness is especially advantageous for on-chip integration and the creation of complex optical circuits. The investigation of Si photonic circuits started in the mid-1980s and has been ongoing since then. A significant volume of research has been conducted on various materials such as SiON ^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24], Si₃N₄ ^[25]^[26]^[27], SiGe ^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31], SiO₂ ^[32]^[33]^[34], and SiC ^[35]^[36]^[37]. These materials have been explored concerning their compatibility with standard CMOS technology. Si dominates as the primary semiconductor material for electronics due to its affordability, well-understood properties, and optical confinement capabilities. However, its indirect bandgap limits its effectiveness as a light-emitting material. Researchers have thus sought ways to modify Si’s structure for light emission ^[38].

Additional efforts were undertaken to define a completely integrated monolithic optoelectronic super chip for Si hybrid integration. This idea was later modified to introduce a hybrid device that relied on a Si platform, incorporating Si optical WGs ^[39] as depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Si-based super chip. Inspired by ^[39].

3. CMOS Fabrication

CMOS is a semiconductor technology commonly used in electronic devices and integrated circuits and is crucial for Si photonics, enabling the integration of photonic and electronic elements on a single Si chip. CMOS technology is widely adopted for its energy efficiency, scalability, and versatility, making it a fundamental component in the design and manufacture of modern electronics ^[16]. Photolithography, using optical or extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light, transfers patterns onto a Si wafer coated with photosensitive material. Ultraviolet lithography (UVL) represents a distinct form of photolithography wherein UV light serves as the exposure source ^[40]. This technique finds extensive application in semiconductor manufacturing and various industries to produce patterns on a substrate. The utilization of UV light with its shorter wavelength enhances resolution and facilitates the creation of smaller, complex devices ^[41]. Nonetheless, UVL demands meticulous attention and specialized equipment due to its distinctive properties. Electron beam lithography (EBL) is a potent nanofabrication technique that achieves extremely high-resolution patterns in nanometers, enabling precise nanostructures and devices ^[42]. Though versatile, it is relatively slow and expensive compared with other lithography methods due to the time-consuming electron beam scanning process ^[43]. Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) offers a cost-effective alternative ^[44] to high-resolution lithography techniques such as EBL. It enables high-throughput production by processing large substrate areas simultaneously ^[45]. Additionally, unlike EBL, NIL does not necessitate complex and expensive equipment.

Reactive ion etching (RIE) ^[46]^[47] and chemical wet etching ^[48]^[49] are common techniques in microfabrication and semiconductor manufacturing. They offer selective material removal from a substrate for pattern creation. Chemical wet etching suits simple and large-area patterning, whereas RIE is better for high-resolution and anisotropic etching ^[50].

The combination of CMOS technology with various lithography and etching techniques enables the creation of complex and high-performance photonics devices that drive technological advancements in a wide range of industries. As technology continues to evolve, further innovations in CMOS and lithography techniques will likely contribute to even more exciting developments in the field of photonics and beyond.

4. Recent Advances in Si Photonics for Telecommunication

Recent progresses in Si photonics have greatly impacted the field of telecommunications. It combines the advantages of Si-based electronic circuits with the speed and bandwidth of optical communications, enabling the development of highly efficient and scalable optical devices ^[51]^[52]. By integrating optical components such as modulators, detectors, and WGs directly onto a Si chip, Si photonics allows for the seamless integration of optical and electronic functionalities. This technology enables high-speed data transmission over long distances, facilitates the growth of data-intensive applications, and provides a pathway for the development of compact, low-cost, and energy-efficient telecommunication systems. Its compatibility with existing Si manufacturing processes makes it an attractive solution for driving the next generation of communication networks, data centers, and high-performance computing infrastructures ^[53].

In Table 1, a comprehensive analysis is provided, showcasing the performance of different Si-based modulators that feature diverse structures.

Table 1. Performance analysis of Si-based modulators employing MZI and ring structures.

Modulation Principle	Structure	E_bit (fJ/bit)	ER (dB)	References
Electro-refractive	MZI	13.21	20.36	^[54]
Electro-optic	MZI	30.18	-	^[55]
Electro-optic	MZI	-	30	^[56]
Electro-optic	MZI	30	-	^[57]
Carrier-depletion	Ring	-	3.9	^[58]
Carrier-depletion	Ring	50	6.5	^[59]
Carrier-injection	Ring	120	7	^[60]
Carrier-depletion	Ring	680	8	^[61]
Carrier-depletion	Ring	-	>10	^[62]

5. Si Photonics Sensors

Si photonic sensors have gained significant attention and interest in both gas sensing and biosensing applications due to their exclusive advantages, such as high sensitivity, miniaturization capabilities, and potential for integration with existing Si-based electronic systems ^[63].

A comprehensive comparison and summary of the performance of various optical gas sensors can be found in Table 2. By examining the data presented in Table 2, readers can gain insights into the strengths and limitations of each sensor type, aiding in the selection and implementation of appropriate optical gas sensing technologies for specific applications.

Table 2. Comparative overview of cutting-edge optical sensors designed for detecting different types of gases.

Sensor	Configuration	Gas	Sensitivity (nm/RIU)	Q-Factor	LOD (RIU)	Refs.
MZI	RR-MZI	H_e, N₂	1458 5500 (Suspended MZI)	-	8.5 × 10⁻⁵	^[64]
RR	RIB-slotted RR	CO₂, CH₄	20,600	-	3.675 × 10⁻⁴	^[65]
RR	Slotted MRR	CH₄, CO₂	2308	-	-	^[66]
RR	Slotted RR	CO₂	300	-	-	^[67]
RR	Slotted MRR	Acetylene	490	5000	10⁻⁵	^[68]
SPP	PSWG	CO₂	-	-	274.6 (Free-standing structure) 70.1 (Asymmetric structure)	^[69]
PhC	Cryptophane-E-infiltrated PhC microcavity	CH₄	363.8	12,923	-	^[70]
PhC	PhC cavity	Tetrahydrofuran (THF) vapor	194	2 × 10⁵	4 × 10⁻⁵	^[71]
PhC	PhC air-slot cavity	CO₂, N₂, H_e	510	2.6 × 10⁴	1 × 10⁻⁵	^[72]
PhC	Slot PhC microcavities	N₂, CO₂, H_e	421	>3.0 × 10⁴	1 × 10⁻⁵	^[73]

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/mi14081637

References

Yamada, K.; Tsuchizawa, T.; Nishi, H.; Kou, R.; Hiraki, T.; Takeda, K.; Fukuda, H.; Ishikawa, Y.; Wada, K.; Yamamoto, T. High-performance silicon photonics technology for telecommunications applications. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2014, 15, 024603.
Sato, K.I. Design and Performance of Large Port Count Optical Switches for Intra Data Centre Application. In Proceedings of the 2020 22nd International Conference on Transparent Optical Networks (ICTON), Bari, Italy, 19–23 July 2020; pp. 1–4.
Roelkens, G.; Abassi, A.; Cardile, P.; Dave, U.; De Groote, A.; De Koninck, Y.; Dhoore, S.; Fu, X.; Gassenq, A.; Hattasan, N.; et al. III-V-on-Silicon Photonic Devices for Optical Communication and Sensing. Photonics 2015, 2, 969–1004.
Kazanskiy, N.L.; Khonina, S.N.; Butt, M.A. Advancement in Silicon Integrated Photonics Technologies for Sensing Applications in Near-Infrared and Mid-Infrared Region: A Review. Photonics 2022, 9, 331.
Sajan, S.C.; Singh, A.; Sharma, P.K.; Kumar, S. Silicon Photonics Biosensors for Cancer Cells Detection—A Review. IEEE Sens. J. 2023, 23, 3366–3377.
Khonina, S.N.; Kazanskiy, N.L.; Butt, M.A. Spectral characteristics of broad band-rejection filter based on Bragg grating, one-dimensional photonic crystal, and subwavelength grating waveguide—IOPscience. Phys. Scr. 2021, 96, 055505. Available online: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1402-4896/abe6be (accessed on 18 July 2023).
Butt, M.A.; Kazanskiy, N.L.; Khonina, S.N. Advances in Waveguide Bragg Grating Structures, Platforms, and Applications: An Up-to-Date Appraisal. Biosensors 2022, 12, 497.
Butt, M.A.; Khonina, S.N.; Kazanskiy, N.L. A T-shaped 1 × 8 balanced optical power splitter based on 90° bend asymmetric vertical slot waveguides. Laser Phys. 2019, 29, 046207.
Butt, M.A.; Khonina, S.N.; Kazanskiy, N.L. Ultrashort inverted tapered silicon ridge-to-slot waveguide coupler at 1.55 µm and 3.392 µm wavelength. Appl. Opt. 2020, 59, 7821–7828.
Melchior, H. Integrated Photonics Research (1998). In Indium Phosphide Photonic Waveguide Devices and Their Fiber Pigtailing; Optica Publishing Group: British, CO, Canada, 1998; p. IMA2. Available online: https://opg.optica.org/abstract.cfm?uri=IPR-1998-IMA2 (accessed on 18 July 2023).
Wang, J.; Santamato, A.; Jiang, P.; Bonneau, D.; Engin, E.; Silverstone, J.W.; Lermer, M.; Beetz, J.; Kamp, M.; Höfling, S.; et al. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) quantum photonic waveguide circuits. Opt. Commun. 2014, 327, 49–55.
Al-Douri, Y. Optical Waveguide of Lithium Niobate Nanophotonics. In Integrated Nanophotonics; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 277–312.
Chen, Q.; Zhu, Y.; Wu, D.; Li, T.; Li, Z.; Lu, C.; Chiang, K.S.; Zhang, X. Electrically generated optical waveguide in a lithium-niobate thin film. Opt. Express 2020, 28, 29895–29903.
Butt, M.A.; Solé, R.; Pujol, M.C.; Ródenas, A.; Lifante, G.; Choudhary, A.; Murugan, G.S.; Shepherd, D.P.; Wilkinson, J.S.; Aguiló, M.; et al. Fabrication of Y-Splitters and Mach–Zehnder Structures on (Yb,Nb):RbTiOPO4/RbTiOPO4 Epitaxial Layers by Reactive Ion Etching. J. Light. Technol. 2015, 33, 1863–1871.
Butt, M.A.; Nguyen, H.D.; Ródenas, A.; Romero, C.; Moreno, P.; de Aldana, J.R.V.; Aguiló, M.; Solé, R.M.; Pujol, M.C.; Díaz, F. Low-repetition rate femtosecond laser writing of optical waveguides in KTP crystals: Analysis of anisotropic refractive index changes. Opt. Express 2015, 23, 15343–15355.
Butt, M.A. Integrated Optics: Platforms and Fabrication Methods. Encyclopedia 2023, 3, 824–838.
Miller, S.E. Integrated optics: An introduction. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 1969, 48, 2059–2069.
Gehler, J.; Bräuer, A.; Karthe, W.; Jäger, M. Antiresonant reflecting optical waveguides in strip configuration. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1994, 64, 276–278.
Aarnio, J.; Heimala, P.; Del Giudice, M.; Bruno, F. Birefringence control and dispersion characteristics of silicon oxynitride optical waveguides. Electron. Lett. 1991, 25, 2317–2318.
Zurhelle, D.; Schmidt, J.P.; Hoffmann, R.; Sander, D.; Mueller, J. Coupling structures for active and passive integrated optoelectronic components and circuits on silicon. In Proceedings of the Optoelectronic Integrated Circuit Materials, Physics, and Devices, San Jose, CA, USA, 6–9 February 1995; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 1995; Volume 2397, pp. 666–677.
Gleine, W.; Muller, J. Laser trimming of SiON components for integrated optics. J. Light. Technol. 1991, 9, 1626–1629.
Müller, J.; Dahms, U.P.; Mahnke, M.; Wunderlich, S. Refractive index relaxation in PECVD-and LPCVD-SiON-waveguides on silicon substrates. In Proceedings of the Conference on Integrated Optics, Delft, The Netherlands, 3–6 April 1995; pp. 303–308.
Wunderlich, S.; Schmidt, J.P.; Müller, J. Integration of SiON waveguides and photodiodes on silicon substrates. Appl. Opt. 1992, 31, 4186–4189.
Tu, Y.K.; Chou, J.C.; Cheng, S.P. Single-mode SiON/SiO2/Si optical waveguides prepared by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Fiber Integr. Opt. 1995, 14, 133–139.
Henry, C.H.; Blonder, G.E.; Kazarinov, R.F. Glass waveguides on silicon for hybrid optical packaging. J. Light. Technol. 1989, 7, 1530–1539.
Hickernell, F.S.; Seaton, C.T. Channelized optical waveguides on silicon. Integr. Packag. Optoelectron. Devices 1987, 703, 164–174.
Nagata, T.; Tanaka, T.; Miyake, K.; Kurotaki, H.; Yokoyama, S.Y.S.; Koyanagi, M.K.M. Micron-size optical waveguide for optoelectronic integrated circuit. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 1994, 33, 822.
Soref, R.A.; Schmidtchen, J.; Petermann, K. Large single-mode rib waveguides in GeSi-Si and Si-on-SiO/sub 2. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 1991, 27, 1971–1974.
Splett, A.O.; Schmidtchen, J.; Schueppert, B.; Petermann, K. Integrated optical channel waveguides in silicon using SiGe alloys. In Proceedings of the Physical Concepts of Materials for Novel Optoelectronic Device Applications II: Device Physics and Applications, Aachen, Germany, 28 October–2 November 1991; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 1991; Volume 1362, pp. 827–833.
Namavar, F.; Soref, R.A. Optical waveguiding in Si/Si1− x Ge x/Si heterostructures. J. Appl. Phys. 1991, 70, 3370–3372.
Weiss, B.L.; Yang, Z.; Namavar, F. Wavelength dependent propagation loss characteristics of SiGe/Si planar waveguides. Electron. Lett. 1992, 28, 2218–2220.
Grant, M.F. Integrated optical waveguide devices on silicon for optical communications. In Proceedings of the IEE Colloquium on Planar Silicon Hybrid Optoelectronics (Digest No. 1994/198), London, UK, 24 October 1994; IET: Stevenage, UK, 1994; pp. 1/1–110.
Najafi, S.I.; Honkanen, S.; Tervonen, A. Recent progress in glass integrated optical circuits. Integr. Opt. Microstruct. II 1994, 2291, 6–12.
Habara, K.; Matsunaga, T. Silica glass waveguide planar lightwave circuit applications in photonic switching. In Proceedings of the Photonic Switching, Minsk, Belarus, 1–3 July 1992; SPIE: Bellingham, WA, USA, 1993; Volume 1807, pp. 418–421.
Tang, X.; Wongchotigul, K.; Spencer, M.G. Optical waveguide formed by cubic silicon carbide on sapphire substrates. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1991, 58, 917–918.
Jackson, S.M.; Reed, G.T.; Reeson, K.J. Wave-Guiding in epitaxial 3c-Silicon carbide on silicon. Electron. Lett. 1995, 31, 1438–1439.
Liu, Y.M.; Prucnal, P.R. Low-loss silicon carbide optical waveguides for silicon-based optoelectronic devices. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 1993, 5, 704–707.
Iyer, S.S.; Xie, Y.-H. Light Emission from Silicon. Science 1993, 260, 40–46.
Soref, R.A. Silicon-based optoelectronics. Proc. IEEE 1993, 81, 1687–1706.
Huang, Y.; Zhao, Q.; Kamyab, L.; Rostami, A.; Capolino, F.; Boyraz, O. Sub-micron silicon nitride waveguide fabrication using conventional optical lithography. Opt. Express 2015, 23, 6780–6786.
Okazaki, S. High resolution optical lithography or high throughput electron beam lithography: The technical struggle from the micro to the nano-fabrication evolution. Microelectron. Eng. 2015, 133, 23–35.
Zheng, Y.; Gao, P.; Tang, X.; Liu, J.; Duan, J. Effects of electron beam lithography process parameters on structure of silicon optical waveguide based on SOI. J. Cent. South Univ. 2022, 29, 3335–3345.
Broers, A.N.; Hoole, A.C.F.; Ryan, J.M. Electron beam lithography—Resolution limits. Microelectron. Eng. 1996, 32, 131–142.
Bruinink, C.M.; Burresi, M.; de Boer, M.J.; Segerink, F.B.; Jansen, H.V.; Berenschot, E.; Reinhoudt, D.N.; Huskens, J.; Kuipers, L. Nanoimprint Lithography for Nanophotonics in Silicon. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2872–2877.
Shneidman, A.V.; Becker, K.P.; Lukas, M.A.; Torgerson, N.; Wang, C.; Reshef, O.; Burek, M.J.; Paul, K.; McLellan, J.; Lončar, M. All-Polymer Integrated Optical Resonators by Roll-to-Roll Nanoimprint Lithography. ACS Photonics 2018, 5, 1839–1845.
Hiscocks, M.P.; Ganesan, K.; Gibson, B.C.; Huntington, S.T.; Ladouceur, F.; Prawer, S. Diamond waveguides fabricated by reactive ion etching. Opt. Express 2008, 16, 19512–19519.
Kim, T.; Lee, J. Optimization of deep reactive ion etching for microscale silicon hole arrays with high aspect ratio. Micro Nano Syst. Lett. 2022, 10, 12.
Bauhuber, M.; Mikrievskij, A.; Lechner, A. Isotropic wet chemical etching of deep channels with optical surface quality in silicon with HNA based etching solutions. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 2013, 16, 1428–1433.
Butt, M.A.; Kozłowski, Ł.; Piramidowicz, R. Numerical scrutiny of a silica-titania-based reverse rib waveguide with vertical and rounded sidewalls. Appl. Opt. 2023, 62, 1296–1302.
Li, W.; Luo, Y.; Xiong, B.; Sun, C.; Wang, L.; Wang, J.; Han, Y.; Yan, J.; Wei, T.; Lu, H. Fabrication of GaN-based ridge waveguides with very smooth and vertical sidewalls by combined plasma dry etching and wet chemical etching. Phys. Status Solidi A 2015, 212, 2341–2344.
Butt, M.A.; Khonina, S.N.; Kazanskiy, N.L. 2D-Photonic crystal heterostructures for the realization of compact photonic devices. Photonics Nanostructures Fundam. Appl. 2021, 44, 100903.
Butt, M.A.; Kazanskiy, N.L. Two-dimensional photonic crystal heterostructure for light steering and TM-polarization maintaining applications—IOPscience. Laser Phys. 2021, 31, 036201. Available online: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1555-6611/abd8ca (accessed on 18 July 2023).
Quack, N.; Takabayashi, A.Y.; Sattari, H.; Edinger, P.; Jo, G.; Bleiker, S.J.; Errando-Herranz, C.; Gylfason, K.B.; Niklaus, F.; Khan, U.; et al. Integrated silicon photonic MEMS. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2023, 9, 27.
Ayoub, A.B.; Swillam, M.A. Optical modulator using ultra-thin silicon waveguide in SOI hybrid technology. Opt. Quantum Electron. 2022, 54, 181.
Sato, H.; Miura, H.; Qiu, F.; Spring, A.M.; Kashino, T.; Kikuchi, T.; Ozawa, M.; Nawata, H.; Odoi, K.; Yokoyama, S. Low driving voltage Mach-Zehnder interference modulator constructed from an electro-optic polymer on ultra-thin silicon with a broadband operation. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 768–775.
Kieninger, C.; Füllner, C.; Zwickel, H.; Kutuvantavida, Y.; Kemal, J.N.; Eschenbaum, C.; Elder, D.L.; Dalton, L.R.; Freude, W.; Randel, S. Silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) Mach-Zehnder modulators for 100 GBd PAM4 signaling with sub-1 dB phase-shifter loss. Opt. Express 2020, 28, 24693–24707.
Wang, C.; Zhang, M.; Chen, X.; Bertrand, M.; Shams-Ansari, A.; Chandrasekhar, S.; Winzer, P.; Lončar, M. Integrated lithium niobate electro-optic modulators operating at CMOS-compatible voltages. Nature 2018, 562, 101–104.
Hu, Y.; Xiao, X.; Xu, H.; Li, X.; Xiong, K.; Li, Z.; Chu, T.; Yu, Y.; Yu, J. High-speed silicon modulator based on cascaded microring resonators. Opt. Express 2012, 20, 15079–15085.
Dong, P.; Liao, S.; Feng, D.; Liang, H.; Zheng, D.; Shafiiha, R.; Kung, C.-C.; Qian, W.; Li, G.; Zheng, X. Low V pp, ultralow-energy, compact, high-speed silicon electro-optic modulator. Opt. Express 2009, 17, 22484–22490.
Chen, L.; Preston, K.; Manipatruni, S.; Lipson, M. Integrated GHz silicon photonic interconnect with micrometer-scale modulators and detectors. Opt. Express 2009, 17, 15248–15256.
Li, J.; Li, G.; Zheng, X.; Raj, K.; Krishnamoorthy, A.V.; Buckwalter, J.F. A 25-Gb/s Monolithic Optical Transmitter with Micro-Ring Modulator in 130-nm SoI CMOS. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2013, 25, 1901–1903.
Ziebell, M.; Marris-Morini, D.; Rasigade, G.; Crozat, P.; Fédéli, J.-M.; Grosse, P.; Cassan, E.; Vivien, L. Ten Gbit/s ring resonator silicon modulator based on interdigitated PN junctions. Opt. Express 2011, 19, 14690–14695.
Conteduca, D.; Arruda, G.S.; Barth, I.; Wang, Y.; Krauss, T.F.; Martins, E.R. Beyond Q: The Importance of the Resonance Amplitude for Photonic Sensors. ACS Photonics 2022, 9, 1757–1763.
Taha, A.M.; Yousuf, S.; Dahlem, M.S.; Viegas, J. Highly-Sensitive Unbalanced MZI Gas Sensor Assisted With a Temperature-Reference Ring Resonator. IEEE Photonics J. 2022, 14, 6657709.
Troia, B.; Passaro, V.M.N. Investigation of a novel silicon-on-insulator Rib-Slot photonic sensor based on the vernier effect and operating at 3.8 µm. J. Eur. Opt. Soc. Rapid Publ. 2014, 9, 14005. Available online: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/951 (accessed on 18 July 2023).
Zhang, W.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, X.; Jin, H.; Jin, Q.; Jian, J. A single slot micro-ring structure for simultaneous CO2 and CH4 gas sensing. Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 2018, 82, 30502.
Tomono, Y.; Hoshi, H.; Shimizu, H. CO2 Detection with Si Slot Waveguide Ring Resonators toward On-chip Specific Gas Sensing. In Proceedings of the Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, San Jose, CA, USA, 5–10 May 2019; Optica Publishing Group: San Jose, CA, USA, 2019; p. JTh2A.96.
Robinson, J.T.; Chen, L.; Lipson, M. On-chip gas detection in silicon optical microcavities. Opt. Express 2008, 16, 4296–4301.
Saeidi, P.; Jakoby, B.; Pühringer, G.; Tortschanoff, A.; Stocker, G.; Dubois, F.; Spettel, J.; Grille, T.; Jannesari, R. Designing Mid-Infrared Gold-Based Plasmonic Slot Waveguides for CO2-Sensing Applications. Sensors 2021, 21, 2669.
Zhang, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, Q. Measurement of methane concentration with cryptophane E infiltrated photonic crystal microcavity. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2015, 209, 431–437.
Wang, X.; Lv, J.; E, S.; Han, B.; Zhang, Y. Theoretical Design and Simulation Optimization of Photonic Crystal Cavity for Tetrahydrofuran Vapor Sensing. Phys. Status Solidi B 2019, 256, 1900221.
Jágerská, J.; Zhang, H.; Diao, Z.; Thomas, N.L.; Houdré, R. Refractive index sensing with an air-slot photonic crystal nanocavity. Opt. Lett. 2010, 35, 2523–2525.
Li, K.; Li, J.; Song, Y.; Fang, G.; Li, C.; Feng, Z.; Su, R.; Zeng, B.; Wang, X.; Jin, C. Ln Slot Photonic Crystal Microcavity for Refractive Index Gas Sensing. IEEE Photonics J. 2014, 6, 6802509.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.