Edible Insects in European Society

Edible Insects in European Society: History

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Entomophagy has a long and rich history in human culture. In fact, insects have been a part of human diets for thousands of years, with evidence of their consumption found in prehistoric archaeological sites. Throughout history, entomophagy has been a common practice in many cultures, particularly in parts of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. In some societies, insects were considered a delicacy and were reserved for special occasions, while, in others, they were a staple food source. The roots of entomophagy vary depending on culture and region, but common reasons include the nutritional benefits of insects, their abundance and accessibility, and the cultural and religious significance of certain species. While the practice of entomophagy has declined in some parts of the world due to the influence of Western culture and industrialization, it continues to be important in many societies. Despite its long history and potential benefits, entomophagy has faced cultural and social stigmas in many parts of the world. However, recent efforts have been made to promote entomophagy as a sustainable and nutritious food source and to challenge cultural biases against insect consumption.

entomophagy
historical perspective
cultural diversity

1. Introduction

The relationship between humans and animals has varied throughout history and across different cultures. For centuries, humans have hunted animals for food or fur, besides using them for transportation or labor. In addition, animals have been caged for people’s pleasure or tamed to be exploited in various ways. In particular, the domestication of animals such as cows, sheep, and horses enabled humans to establish settled agricultural societies, thus playing a significant role in human history by providing benefits in terms of food, transportation, farming, and companionship .

Throughout history, animals, including insects, have often been imbued with spiritual significance and regarded as sacred or symbolic beings. Even nowadays, they are often seen as symbols of the natural world; as such, they represent our connection to the Earth and the cycles of life and death. They can also symbolize the seasons, the elements, and the different forces of nature and have, therefore, been associated with specific qualities and traits, such as strength, wisdom, speed, or cunning . For example, in ancient Egypt, the scarab beetle was associated with the god Khepri and represented rebirth and renewal . In Hinduism, cows are considered sacred and should not be harmed ^[1].

Specifically, Brahmins never eat or handle any meat, fish, or eggs, while people belonging to the other three castes (Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Shudra) sometimes eat fish, eggs, and even chicken, goat, or mutton, but never during religious occasions ^[2]. n general, the relationship between humans and animals has been complex and even contradictory. On the one hand, humans have always relied on animals for survival, but, at the same time, they have also harmed them through overhunting, pollution, and habitat destruction. Today, however, there is growing recognition of the need to strike a balance between human needs and preserving the natural world. There are many things we can do to preserve the balance crucial for the long-term sustainability of our planet [6]. For example, we can make conscious decisions to reduce our carbon footprint by adopting “green” habits such as using renewable energy, reducing waste, conserving water, and using public transportation or walking instead of driving; we can also promote biodiversity by supporting the planting of native plants and the conservation of natural habitats. In addition, we can reduce the consumption of resources such as energy, food, and water [7].
Through these actions, we can help ensure that human needs are met while preserving the natural world for future generations. In this framework, the choice of alternative protein and other nutrient sources, e.g., insects, should also be considered, as Meyer-Rochow had already suggested to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) nearly 50 years ago [8]. It is well known that insects require significantly fewer resources than conventional livestock and may, therefore, be regarded as a sustainable food source [9]. Furthermore, entomophagy, i.e., the practice of eating insects by people [10], has been accepted in many societies worldwide throughout history, and, at the same time, insects are considered an emerging food in areas where the use of eating insects is not a recent culinary tradition [11]. In this context, this review approaches the topic of entomophagy from a historical and cultural perspective, as this novel food is rooted in the past, but, at the same time, it is projected into the future and may become increasingly important in the face of global population growth and changing climate conditions [12,13].

2. The Consumption of Insects in the following Centuries in European Society

The study of insect consumption in ancient Rome is a fascinating area of research that offers insights into the dietary habits and cultural practices of this ancient civilization. With regard to the following historic periods, it is important to note that the consumption of insects during the Middle Ages was not well documented, and the available historical records are limited ^[3]. Therefore, our understanding of the extent and frequency of insect consumption during that period is somewhat limited. In summary, while there is evidence to suggest occasional insect consumption in certain contexts during the Middle Ages, entomophagy was not a prevalent or widespread practice throughout Europe. Insects were not a significant part of the everyday diet, and their consumption was often driven by specific circumstances or local customs ^[4].

After the medieval period, there were many references to the consumption of insects across a wide range of cultures and geographic regions, and there are several authors and works that discuss the consumption of insects ^[5]. In the European context, during the Renaissance period, the Italian physician and naturalist Andrea Bacci (1524–1600) wrote about the culinary uses of insects in his book “De Thermis”, published in 1571. Bacci recommended the consumption of locusts and cicadas as a healthy and nutritious food source ^[6]^[7].

The French physician and herbalist Pierre Belon (1517–1564) also wrote about the consumption of insects in his book “Les Oeuvres de Pierre Belon”, which was published in 1555. Belon described how the people of Turkey and other Eastern countries ate locusts, grasshoppers, and other insects, and recommended the consumption of ants as a remedy for indigestion ^[8]. Similarly, the Swiss physician Conrad Gesner (1516–1565) wrote about the medicinal and culinary uses of insects in his book “Historiae Animalium”, which was published in the mid-16th century. Gesner described how the people of Switzerland and Germany ate grasshoppers and locusts and recommended the consumption of beetles and ants as a remedy for various ailments ^[9].

Overall, while the consumption of insects during the Renaissance period was not as widespread as it was in earlier times, there were still several authors and scholars who wrote about the culinary and medicinal uses of insects.

Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was an Italian naturalist and physician who lived during the 16th century. He is known for his extensive studies of plants, animals, and minerals, which he documented in several books. In his book “De Animalibus Insectis Libri Septem” (Seven Books on Insects), Aldrovandi discussed the consumption of insects by humans. He observed that, in many cultures, insects were an important source of protein and other nutrients and were often used as food ^[10]^[11]. Aldrovandi recognized the potential nutritional benefits of consuming insects and even described the taste and culinary uses of certain species. He believed that insects could provide a cheap and plentiful source of food for the poor and that they could be farmed for this purpose. Aldrovandi talked about the consumption of insects in his book because he recognized their potential as a nutritious and sustainable food source and because he was interested in studying all aspects of the natural world, including the role of insects in human societies and ecosystems. In fact, Aldrovandi’s interest in insects was not just limited to their nutritional value. He also studied their anatomy, behavior, and ecology, and was one of the first scientists to recognize the importance of insects in pollination and other ecological processes ^[11].

Subsequently, the famous biologist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) wrote about his experiences eating insects during his travels in South America in his book “The Voyage of the Beagle” ^[12]. Moreover, the French naturalist Jean Henri Fabre (1823–1915) wrote about the culinary uses of insects in his book “Souvenirs Entomologiques” ^[13].

Vincent M. Holt, an English naturalist and author who lived in the 19th century, wrote a book in 1885 entitled “Why Not Eat Insects?” in which he argued that insects were a nutritious and sustainable food source ^[14]. Holt compared insects to other widespread foods, such as eels (whom he called “the scavenger of the sea”), octopus, cuttlefish, and oysters, wondering what the basis of the disgust caused by insects was. He also argued that one way to succeed in popularizing insect consumption might be to make them a fashionable food, fashion being the most powerful motivator in this world.

More recently, Paul Rozin, an American psychologist born in 1936, wrote extensively about food and culture. In several of his works, he discussed the history and cultural significance of insect consumption ^[15]. He compared attitudes towards entomophagy in various cultures to identify commonalities and differences in their practices and beliefs in order to provide a deeper understanding of food preferences and human behavior in different societies ^[16]. His research may have had implications for nutritional science, biology, and entomology, shedding light on a lesser known but potentially valuable food source.

In summary, European scholars from different eras discussed insect consumption by providing historical context, presenting a cross-cultural perspective, and conveying the cultural significance of this practice. They contributed to bridging the gap between the past and present, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of the cultural perspective on insect consumption.

4. Examples of Insect Consumption in Non-Western Countries Today

Cross-cultural considerations are important when discussing the use of insects as human food. Each cultural context brings its own traditions, beliefs, and culinary practices. Although this review focuses primarily on Western societies, it is important to approach these topics with respect for cultural diversity and to recognize the importance of local knowledge and traditions [70]. Nowadays, more than 2000 insect species are consumed around the world [71], and some examples concerning non-Western countries are given here. In African literature, the consumption of caterpillars belonging to the Cossidae family (“the goat moths” or “carpenter moths”) has been a common theme in traditional stories and folklore. In some cultures, the caterpillars are believed to have special powers or spiritual significance and are used in rituals and ceremonies [72]. These large caterpillars feed on various trees, including oak, willow, and apple trees. In some African countries, they are collected from wild trees and sold in local markets as a food source. The caterpillars are typically roasted or fried and eaten as a snack or as part of a meal. They are also believed to have medicinal properties and are sometimes used to treat a variety of ailments [9,73]. There is a significant amount of literature on the consumption of mopane worms, which has focused on their nutritional value, cultural significance, and potential as a sustainable food source [74]. Mopane worms are the larvae of the emperor moth Gonimbrasia belina (Westwood), native to sub-Saharan Africa, and are commonly eaten in southern Africa, particularly in Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa. Mopane worms are a rich source of protein and other nutrients and are an important food source for many people in the region. They are traditionally harvested from mopane trees, which are common in the region, and are often eaten either boiled or fried [75].
In South America, the larvae of the palm weevil Rhynchophors palmarum L., known as “suri”, are a traditional food source for indigenous communities in the Amazon rainforest. They are often eaten raw or roasted and are sometimes used in traditional medicines as well [76].
In Southeast Asia, so-called “bamboo worms” are a popular street food in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. Omphisa fuscidentalis (Hampson) is the scientific name of the species, including a moth belonging to the family Crambidae, which includes more than 11,000 described species worldwide [77,78]. In Northeast India, insects such as silkworm pupae, bamboo worms, and red ants are commonly consumed in certain tribal communities, and they are often cooked with spices, creating unique flavors and textures in traditional dishes [79,80,81]. The Asian giant hornet (Vespa mandarinia Smith) has traditionally been reared and semi-domesticated by tribal people in Nagaland to be used as human food and a remedy for disease [82]. Oceania has a long history of incorporating insects into the human diet. Insects such as sago grubs and crickets have been commonly consumed and considered a valuable protein source in Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea [79,81,82]. Thousands of years ago, Aborigine people used to semi-cultivate cerambycid beetles by placing ovipositing females on suitable trees from which the larvae could later be harvested and employed as food. This “intentional” production of edible insects highlights a sophisticated understanding of the interconnections between plants, insects, and food sources for humans [81]. In Papua New Guinea, insects have been consumed as a traditional food source for centuries. They are often collected from the wild, and the selection of insect species and the methods of preparation and cooking vary among different ethnic groups [5,83,84]. The preservation and enhancement of these traditional practices are crucial for the conservation of cultural heritage and biodiversity and may contribute to a more holistic and sustainable approach to food systems and environmental management.
5. A Future Food from the Past in Western Societies

When comparing the consumption of insects in the past and today, different points of view offer insights into the changes and developments surrounding insect consumption over time. In the past, even in Western countries, insect consumption was rooted in cultural practices and traditions. As shown in previous paragraphs, entomophagy was considered a normal and accepted part of the diet in many contexts (while other insects were consumed out of necessity during times of food scarcity).
Today, while insect consumption is gaining traction globally, cultural attitudes toward eating insects still vary significantly. Some cultures embrace entomophagy as a traditional practice, while others may have reservations or consider it unconventional. With the growing recognition of the environmental impact of animal husbandry, there is an increased interest in insects as a more sustainable protein source. In fact, in terms of nutrition, insects are a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals and, with a better understanding of nutrition and advancements in food science, insects are being recognized for their nutritional value and potential health benefits [85].
Moreover, the present era has seen culinary innovations and technological advancements that have transformed how insects are consumed: they are now processed into various forms and incorporated into a wide range of food products, appealing to modern tastes and dietary preferences. This level of innovation and accessibility was likely not present to the same extent in the past. The current global perspective emphasizes the potential of insects to address food shortages and reduce the strain on resources [86]. The cultural and social attitudes towards insect consumption have evolved over time; the consumption of insects was likely more^[17] and acceptable in biblical times and in ancient Rome than it is in modern European culture. They are generally not considered a mainstream food source, and insect consumption is relatively uncommon in many Western cultures, even if they are a sustainable food source for several reasons. Insects produce less waste and pollution and can be produced in a more efficient and environmentally friendly manner than traditional livestock. Insects can also be raised on organic waste, reducing the need for landfills and thus improving waste management [87]. Insects require significantly fewer resources than traditional livestock farming, resulting in a lower carbon footprint. They require less land and feed and produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions. They are highly efficient at converting feed into edible biomass. For example, crickets require six times less feed than cattle to produce the same amount of protein. They can be raised on vertical farms or in small spaces, reducing the need for large amounts of land. Therefore, they may even be produced in urban areas where space is limited, considering they require significantly less water than traditional livestock farming [88]. For example, crickets require 2000 times less water than beef cattle to produce the same amount of protein. Insects are less susceptible to disease and do not require antibiotics or growth hormones. This reduces the use of chemicals in their production, which can harm the environment and human health. The consumption of insects can thus offer a range of benefits for the future, including improved nutrition, environmental sustainability, food security, cultural diversity, and innovation in the food industry.
Insects may be considered comparable in nutritional value to conventional food [89] and may also be digested by most human beings [90]. They are a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals. They contain all the essential amino acids required by the human body, making them a high-quality protein source. Insects are also low in fat and have a favorable ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids [9,91].
As the world population grows, there is an increasing need for sustainable food sources. Insects can provide a reliable and sustainable source of protein. As shown previously, in many cultures around the world, insects are already a traditional food source. Incorporating insects into global food systems, including in Western societies, may help preserve traditional food cultures and promote cultural diversity [92]. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the consumption of insects and in novel food products since they are being developed with sustainability in mind, using ingredients that are locally sourced, organic, and/or regeneratively produced; these production methods help to minimize environmental impacts and support sustainable agriculture in the context of a circular economy. Insect production, however, requires expertise, since different factors, including the quality of the diet offered and microbiological assessment, need to be taken into account [93,94,95].
Novel food refers to any food or food ingredient that was not consumed to a significant degree within the European Union (EU) prior to 15 May 1997. This includes either newly developed foods/food ingredients or traditional foods from other parts of the world that are not currently consumed within the EU. The importance of novel food lies in its potential to offer new and innovative food products to consumers while ensuring that they are safe and do not harm human health. Novel food can provide a range of benefits, such as improved nutrition, enhanced flavor, and new culinary experiences. However, the safety of novel food is paramount; therefore, it is subject to a rigorous safety assessment before it can be authorized for sale within the EU. The safety assessment evaluates the potential risks associated with the food, including its composition, toxicity, and any possible allergenic effects [96]. The EU’s regulation of novel foods provides a framework for the authorization, safety assessment, labeling, and traceability of novel food products. This ensures that consumers can make informed choices about the food they eat and can have confidence in the safety and quality of novel food products [97,98].
In summary, the development of novel foods is an opportunity to explore more sustainable food sources and production methods. By promoting the use of sustainable and innovative food sources, novel foods have the potential to contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food system because they can help address the problem of malnutrition and improve the overall health of populations. A nutritious diet is essential for good health, and novel food can provide the essential nutrients needed for optimal health [99].
The production of novel food (including insects) may also create jobs and stimulate economic growth, particularly in rural areas where agriculture is an important productive activity. This can help to reduce poverty and promote economic development as well as promote a more ethical and sustainable food system [100].
In Europe, the consumption of insects as a food source has progressively declined with the spread of the cultural taboo against consuming “creepy crawlies”. The European Union has not yet fully approved entomophagy for widespread consumption, but there has been increasing interest and research in this area in recent years. Some EU member states (including Belgium and the Netherlands) have allowed the sale of certain insect products, but there is not yet a harmonized framework for regulating insect-based foods across the EU [101]. However, there are still some traditional dishes that include insects in European cuisine, such as the Sardinian delicacy of Casu Marzu, a cheese colonized by insect larvae (see below); moreover, in 2018, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved the use of whole and ground crickets as a novel food, meaning it can be used as an ingredient in various food products sold in the EU. Cricket flour is made from ground crickets and is a high-protein, gluten-free alternative to traditional flour. It can be used in various food products, such as protein bars, pasta, and baked goods. The approval of cricket flour as a food ingredient by the EU is a significant milestone for the insect food industry, as it opens up new market opportunities and increases the acceptability of insect-based foods among consumers. EU approval also means that cricket flour is subject to the same safety and labeling regulations as other food products sold in the EU, ensuring it is safe for human consumption [102].
Casu Marzu is a traditional cheese made in the region of Sardinia, Italy, that is made from sheep’s milk. What makes this cheese unique is that it is intentionally infested with the live insect larvae of the cheese fly, Piophila casei (L.), which are allowed to hatch and mature in the cheese. The larvae feed on the cheese and break down its fats, producing a soft and creamy texture. Casu Marzu has a pungent odor and is considered a delicacy by some people [103]. It has a long history in Sardinian culture and is believed to have originated as a way for shepherds to preserve cheese during the long winters when fresh milk was scarce. The practice of intentionally infesting cheese with insect larvae is also found in other Italian regions (such as Abruzzo and Apulia), as well as in Corsica and in other cultures, such as in the Philippines. Despite its popularity, the consumption of Casu Marzu is controversial due to health concerns. In fact, the larvae in the cheese can survive in the human digestive system and have been known to cause gastrointestinal problems, including vomiting and diarrhea. As a result, Casu Marzu is banned in many countries [104,105].
Marcetto cheese from Abruzzo is also known for its feature of being ripened with live cheese flies. The production of this typical food involves inoculating it with P. casei maggots, which are then allowed to feed on the cheese for several months. During this time, the cheese develops a pungent and earthy flavor that is highly prized by cheese connoisseurs. Another example is Queso del Infierno, a Spanish cheese that is made with goat’s milk and is ripened with cheese flies, following the same methods described above. The resulting cheese has a soft and creamy texture and a pungent flavor [106]. There are also other types of cheese that are made with insects or insect-derived ingredients, such as the use of bee pollen in some types of goat cheese, or the use of larvae or pupae in other types of cheese in Asia and Africa. These cheeses are often considered delicacies and are valued for their unique flavors and textures [107].
In recent years, cricket flour has become increasingly popular due to several factors, including its nutritional value, sustainability, and versatility in culinary uses. Regarding nutritional value, cricket flour is a good source of protein, containing up to 70% protein by weight, as well as vitamins and minerals such as iron and vitamin B12 [108]. It is also low in fat and carbohydrates, making it a popular choice among health-conscious consumers. Regarding sustainability [109], compared to traditional livestock such as cows or pigs, crickets require less space, water, and food to produce the same amount of protein. In addition, crickets emit fewer greenhouse gases and generate less waste than traditional livestock [110]. Regarding versatility, cricket flour can be used in a variety of food products, including baked goods, snacks, and protein bars. According to some consumers, it has a neutral flavor and can easily be incorporated into recipes without affecting taste or texture [111]. Moreover, the “novelty factor” may also have an impact: eating insects or their derivatives (including cricket flour) is considered unusual in many parts of the world, and some consumers are drawn to the novelty of trying a new and exotic food source. Since it is gluten-free, for people with specific intolerances, cricket flour is a viable alternative to wheat flour [112]. Overall, the nutritional, environmental, and economic benefits of cricket flour contribute to its growing popularity in the food industry.

6. Conclusions

By exploring the rich history of insect consumption, we can gain a greater appreciation of the important role that insects have played and, probably, will continue to play in human culture and nutrition.
Evidence indicates that humans have been consuming insects as a food source for tens of thousands of years. Exploring archaeological and anthropological sources, as well as potential reasons why early humans turned to insects as a food source through a cultural-historical perspective, we noted the nutritional benefits of insects, which were apparently valued by our ancestors, whether as an emergency or luxury food. In Western society, while the cultural acceptance and availability of insects may have been more widespread in ancient Rome, and, to some extent, in the Renaissance period, today’s interest in insect consumption is driven by sustainability, innovation, and the evolution of dietary practices. In ancient Rome, insects were consumed as a luxury food, but also as a response to food scarcity, partly due to their availability. They were a readily accessible source of nutrients and were collected during specific seasons or in times of need. Moreover, in ancient times, insect consumption was not governed by specific regulations or commercialized as a mainstream food industry. Today, in many Western societies, including those influenced by Roman culture, insect consumption is not so widespread or culturally accepted. However, interest in eating insects as a sustainable protein source is growing and gaining popularity in some communities and among adventurous eaters. Current interest in insect consumption is driven by sustainability, innovation, and the evolution of dietary practices.
In conclusion, the consumption of insects has a long and varied history that dates to prehistoric times. Despite cultural taboos and societal biases against insects as a food source [5], many cultures worldwide have traditionally consumed insects for their nutritional and medicinal properties [113].
Today, with the growing awareness of the environmental and economic benefits of insect consumption, the practice is gaining wider acceptance and popularity across the globe. However, regulatory and cultural barriers still exist, and there is a need for further research into the nutritional content and safety of insect-based foods.

7. Future Directions

Insect consumption is becoming increasingly popular and is expected to continue to grow. Possible future directions for insect consumption are the following. (1) The expansion of insects as a mainstream food source: while insects are already consumed in many parts of the world, they are not yet a mainstream food source in many other regions. In the future, there may be a greater push to promote insects as a healthy and sustainable food source on a larger scale. (2) Increased use in processed foods: insect derivatives, i.e., cricket flour, are already being used in various food products such as protein bars, snacks, and baked goods. As consumers become more familiar with insects as a food source, we can expect to see more processed food products incorporating insect-based ingredients. (3) Greater emphasis on sustainability: insects are often promoted as a sustainable protein source due to their low environmental impact compared to traditional livestock. In the future, there may be a greater emphasis on exploiting the sustainability of insect farming practices, exploring factors such as feed sources, water usage, and waste management [114]. (4) Development of new insect-based products: a wide range of insect-based products is already available, but we can expect the development of new products as insects become accepted as a food source. These may include new insect-based meat alternatives, beverages, and functional foods. (5) Increased research into the nutritional benefits of insects: while insects are known to be a good source of protein, there is still much to be learned about their overall nutritional content and potential health benefits. In the future, more studies are expected to be performed to determine the nutritional value of insects and their potential role in promoting health and preventing disease [115].
In conclusion, in Western societies, insects are an emerging food that is rooted in the past and has gained popularity in recent years due to its nutritional value, sustainability, and versatility. As the global population continues to grow and the demand for protein increases, insects may become an increasingly important food source [8].
Today’s world presents great contradictions. For, on the one hand, a part of the population faces the overproduction of food, food waste, obesity, and other health problems related to overeating, but, on the other hand, many people are still facing food insecurity, even in wealthy countries [116]. Insects can certainly represent a (not necessarily emergency) food for hungry populations, but they should, moreover, be regarded as a sustainable source of protein and other nutrients, the consumption of which can also help the wealthier part of the world to eat in a healthier and more sustainable way [9,74,117].
However, there are also challenges to be addressed, such as the cultural and regulatory barriers to insect consumption, as well as the need for more research into the nutritional content, production, and safety of insect-based foods [118]. With continued innovation and research, insects have the potential to play an important role in meeting the world’s food needs in a sustainable and nutritious way.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/insects14080690

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