In the early 2020s, the SARS-CoV-2 virus, responsible for the severe acute respiratory syndrome (COVID-19), began to spread rapidly around the world. In an attempt to reduce the circulation of the virus, the governments of several countries imposed lockdowns on their populations. The countries with the highest number of deaths because of COVID-19 were North America, Japan, and Europe (Germany and Italy) [1,2,3]. Through May 2020, the virus claimed over 300,000 lives worldwide [4]. This unprecedented scenario, in which mass media and social media constantly reported daily news and updates on death tolls, increased the salience of mortality and contributed to an increase in death anxiety [5,6]. Death anxiety is defined as a reaction to the prospect of one’s own mortality. In particular, death anxiety refers to the fear associated with anticipation of death, as well as with awareness of mortality and nonexistence, which may or may not be consciously recognized by an individual [7]. It can manifest as a fear of dying, in particular a fear of a painful death, as well as an increased focus on physical changes associated with illnesses such as cancer and even a preoccupation with the passage of time [8]. Death anxiety is present from early childhood and tends to reach its peak during young adulthood [9,10]. According to some studies, the fear of death reaches its highest point between the ages of 40–60 and then decreases in later stages of life [11]. However, contrasting views are presented by other authors who suggest that it would be greater in the 20s and then occur again in the 50s but only in women [12]. Despite the different findings in the literature, the thought of death, and more generally of our own and others’ mortality, persistently pervade our lives from childhood [13]. These thoughts may fluctuate in intensity and resurface because of events or situations in daily life triggering emotional states that are often unpleasant and little explored by the individual.

Research on death anxiety was relatively scarce before the COVID-19 pandemic, with most studies focusing on intervention protocols for adults with advanced cancer and palliative-care patients [14]. In the latter two samples, two types of thoughts coexisted: the desire to live mindfully and be present in the moment and the inclination to hasten death because of an inability to tolerate suffering. The desire to die stemming from the inability to endure psychological and physical distress is often associated with assisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia. In this case, patients experienced depression, frustration, loss of autonomy, fear of the future, and dependency [14,15,16,17]. Since the pandemic began, the effects of death anxiety on behavior have become a major focus of psychological research [18]. Several studies found significant associations between death anxiety and many negative psychological outcomes, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, separation anxiety, and suicidal tendencies [19,20]. By examining the psychological factors associated with death anxiety, the ability to cope with mental distress can be improved [21].

In recent years, following the global spread of COVID-19, several studies have shown a significant correlation between death anxiety and two components of mood dimensions: negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA) [22]. NA is characterized by a lack of pleasure and interest in daily activities, low energy, and sadness, while PA is characterized by pleasure and interest in daily activities, high energy, and concentration. NA and PA are trait mood factors that correspond to the personality factors of neuroticism and extraversion, respectively [23]. Specifically, NA is associated with negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and fear, while PA is associated with positive emotions such as joy, enthusiasm, and an increased well-being [24]. In two recent studies involving a sample of 917 participants, researchers investigated the differences between Chinese people who posted COVID-19-related content on social media during the peak phase of the pandemic and those who did not post any content. Results showed a positive correlation between death anxiety and negative affect (r = 0.47, p < 0.01) [3,21]. In contrast, Evram and Çakici [18] found that the level of positive affect tended to increase as the university students’ death anxiety increased. These data were explained from the perspective of existential psychotherapy, which suggested that awareness of death can increase the meaning of life.

Many governments established lockdowns to mitigate the transmission of the virus, resulting in radical changes in various aspects of daily life, including teaching and learning activities. In numerous cases, traditional face-to-face activities were replaced by distance learning. As a result, school closures affected 192 countries, involving approximately 90% of learners worldwide [25]. The new technological approach to education and the introduction of digital tools often raised concerns about learning quality from the perspectives of both teachers and learners [26,27].

Previous studies [28,29] suggested that the perceived quality of distance learning is deeply associated with students’ satisfaction with online learning activities. Student learning satisfaction can be considered an adequate measure to assess the quality of distance education [28]. Similarly, a recent study conducted in 10 countries, including Italy, after the COVID-19 outbreak, found that the quality of distance learning had a significant positive effect on perceived student satisfaction [29]. Authors identified the most relevant variables affecting students’ performance and proposed a model that can predict 55% of the variance in students’ perceptions of academic performance. In this model, five factors (service quality, teacher’s active role in the online education process, overall system quality, students’ digital competencies, and online interactions with their colleagues and teachers) influenced the perceived quality of distance learning. The latter, in turn, strongly influenced students’ satisfaction with remote learning, which subsequently impacted their perceived performance. Therefore, the study highlights that student satisfaction is a crucial mediating factor between the perceived quality of distance learning and students’ perceived performance [29].

Several studies found that the general population [30,31,32,33,34,35,36] experienced an increase in psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, death anxiety, and a decrease in well-being. Similar results have also been observed in the population of healthcare workers (e.g., [37,38,39,40,41]) who have been actively involved in directly addressing the spread and treating sick people. Regarding the student population, the traumatic experience of the COVID-19 pandemic brought contemplation of death closer, which may have heightened death anxiety and concerns about death in general [42,43]. Recent literature analyzed descriptive studies on death anxiety in several populations [44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51]. However, few researchers studied the effects of death anxiety on the student population [33]. To date, only four studies analyzed death anxiety among students during the pandemic. One recent study in a sample of Chinese university students found that anxiety and stress influenced death anxiety [52]. Söğütlü and Göktaş [42] found that death anxiety determined significant bodily symptoms in a sample of university students. A study on a sample of nursing students showed that death anxiety decreased with an increased level of attention to events other than COVID-19 and with a belief in healing in the case of contagion with the infection [53]. Finally, a more recent study found significant and positive correlations among death anxiety, anxiety, and depression in a sample of undergraduate students [43].

Death anxiety is associated with several mental illnesses and poor mood states, including depression, anxiety, and negative affect. These negative psychological states increased during the pandemic, particularly among student populations [20,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. Studying the emotional impact on students can help cope with the sudden shift from face-to-face to online teaching [31,62]. Indeed, several studies analyzed the psychological and technological problems associated with distance learning after the outbreak of COVID-19 [63,64,65,66,67,68]. The most frequently reported difficulties were primarily of a technical nature: many college and university students faced obstacles linked with accessibility to the network accessibility and availability of teaching media in their place of residence, as well as a lack of advanced technological tools and digital supports such as CDs, pen drives, and memory cards [63,64,65,66,68]. These difficulties tended to be more marked and impacting in rural areas of economically disadvantaged countries, such as Indonesia and India [63,64,68]. Additionally, students in medical fields frequently reported difficulties in attending and/or replacing laboratory and practical clinical lessons [67]. Psychological factors also played a significant role in students’ satisfaction with online lectures: social isolation and higher stress and anxiety levels impacted students’ experiences [66,68]. Other frequently reported difficulties included poor organization of online lessons—if compared with face-to-face lectures—lower quality of peer discussion, increased workload, and lower concentration. These factors often led to difficulties in following classes, seeking clarification on doubts, and understanding study materials [64,66,68]. As a result, during the COVID-19 pandemic, students often perceived online classes as significantly less effective than in-person lectures and experienced lower motivation to participate, as a consequence [65,68].

Despite the importance of mood state in the student sample, to date few studies scientifically explored this topic [56].

Before the pandemic, only a few studies examined the association between affect and distance learning. An experimental study used physiological signals (such as heart rate, skin conductance, blood volume pressure, and EEG brain waves) to predict emotions during individual e-learning activities among graduate students, highlighting the importance of affective data in implementing e-learning sessions [69]. Moreover, analyzing the correlations between e-learners’ achievements and PANAS, Zhu and colleagues highlighted that positive affect could contribute to better results for students using online platforms [70]. These findings on distance learning align with the control-process model, where positive and negative affect emerged as key factors to predict learning and academic performance [71,72,73].

Since the spread of COVID-19, the interest in the relationship between PA and NA and learning activities (and distance learning activities in particular) has increased: recent research showed that 75% of medical students exhibited medium–low or very low levels of positive affect, and 53% of students reported higher levels of negative affect compared to the general population [54]. Similarly, a study conducted on Turkish and Danish high school students who were exposed to distance learning reported a worsening in emotional status and an increase in negative affect following the pandemic outbreak [61].

Furthermore, a sample of Chinese university students reported moderate levels of positive affect and moderately low levels of negative affect, with those with higher academic qualifications and medical knowledge scoring higher on positive affect [59].

However, to date, only one study analyzed the role of negative affect in the context of distance learning during the pandemic in a sample of university students, underlining an increase in negative work–home interaction, the negative impacts of tele-studying (such as irritability), and the feeling of being permanently on call because of work/study demands [56]. Post-pandemic data seem to evidence an increase in negative affect among distance learners. However, research on the relationship between affect and online learning is insufficient and lacks homogeneity. Various authors evidenced the need for more in-depth studies [56,59,69,70].

If positive and negative affect are related to academic performance, it could be important to analyze their role in reducing the negative influence of death anxiety because it is possible to modify individual emotional conditions with proper psychological interventions.