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Oxide and chalcogenide nanoparticles have great potential for use in biomedicine, engineering, agriculture, environmental protection, and other research fields. The myco-synthesis of nanoparticles with fungal cultures, their metabolites, culture liquids, and mycelial and fruit body extracts is simple, cheap and environmentally friendly. The characteristics of nanoparticles, including their size, shape, homogeneity, stability, physical properties and biological activity, can be tuned by changing the myco-synthesis conditions.
- biogenic nanoparticles
- green synthesis
- oxides
- chalcogenides
- nanoparticle characteristics
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology and nanomaterials science are rapidly developing fields, which contribute greatly to the development of modern technology and biomedicine. An important challenge is the development of simple, effective, and cheap methods of producing highly monodispersed, stable, and biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) with the required chemical composition, shape, size, biological activity, and other properties. The recent increase in attention to environmental safety, natural resource exhaustibility, and human health safety has led to the increasing development of green NP-producing technologies by biosynthesis methods [1,2,3,4]. Owing to its being environmentally benign and less resource-intensive than other methods, the synthesis of nontoxic and biocompatible NPs by using living organisms and a variety of biological materials derived from them is a promising alternative to physical and chemical fabrication methods.
The ability to biosynthesize NPs has been found in many organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, lichens, and viruses [5]. Among this diversity of biological objects used for green NP synthesis, a special place is occupied by fungi [6,7,8]. Fungal cultures produce a wide range of proteins with high enzymatic activity, and due to that they can convert metals and other elements into less toxic forms. This includes the formation of NPs, which then accumulate in large quantities within the mycelium and/or extracellularly. As a result, micro- and macro-mycetes from different taxonomic groups can be successfully used to produce NPs and nanomaterials on an industrial scale. The applications of fungi in myco-nano-synthesis are also highly versatile. NPs with different characteristics can be obtained either by growing fungal cultures on media with precursors or by incubating these precursors with mycelial bio-mass, culture liquid filtrates, extracts from vegetative mycelium, fruiting bodies and other morpho-structures, and purified proteins and other metabolites isolated from fungi [5]. In addition, the properties of biogenic NPs depend on medium composition, chemical composition and concentration of the precursor, incubation time, stirring rate, temperature, pH and other conditions. By varying these, the chemical composition, shape, size, homogeneity, stability, and biological activity of formed particles can be controlled [9,10,11,12].
2. Myco-Synthesis of Oxide Nanoparticles
To date, the ability to form elementary metal and metalloid NPs has been found in many fungal species. However, the number of elements that can be sources of mycogenic NPs is rather small and includes gold, silver, platinum, palladium, iron, copper, selenium, and tellurium [5]. For oxides and salts, the range of chemical composition for mycogenic NPs is much wider, yet most of them remain very poorly studied. Among fungi-mediated oxide NPs, titanium, zinc, iron, and copper oxides have been studied to the greatest extent.
2.1. Myco-Synthesis of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles
Copper oxide NPs have attracted high attention because copper is one of the most important elements in modern technologies and is readily accessible [25]. Copper oxide is widely used in catalysis, superconductors, thermoelectric and sensing materials, ceramics, gas sensors, and many other fields. Biomedical applications of these NPs include biosensors, cancer medicine, and antimicrobials [26]. In recent years, the fungi-mediated synthesis of copper oxide NPs has become of interest (Table 1).
Table 1. Myco-synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CuO | Aspergillus flavus | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Spherical (average size of 32.4 nm) | [27] |
| CuO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | – | [28,29] |
| CuO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Below 100 nm | [30] |
| CuO | Penicillium chrysogenum | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Spherical (average size of 9.7 nm) | [31] |
| CuO | Trichoderma asperellum | Mycelial extract | Cu(NO3)2 | Spherical (10–190 nm) | [32] |
| CuO | Trichoderma harzianum | Mycelial extract | CuSO4 | Nano-fibers (38–77 nm in width, 135–320 nm in length) | [33] |
| Cu2O, CuO | Stereum hirsutum | Mycelial extract | CuCl2 | Spherical (5–20 nm) | [34] |
| CuxOy | Penicillium aurantiogriseum | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Spherical (89–250 nm) | [35] |
| CuxOy | Penicillium citrinum | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Spherical (85–295 nm) | [35] |
| CuxOy | Penicillium waksmanii | Culture liquid | CuSO4 | Spherical (79–179 nm) | [35] |
| CuxOy | Pleurotus florida | Bio-mass | CuCl2 | Spherical, partially spherical, oval (22.55–60.09 nm) | [36] |
| CuSO4 | Hexagonal, partially spherical (12.82–48.86 nm) |
CuO nanospheres (average size 32.4 nm) with high antimicrobial and antitumor activities were obtained with Aspergillus flavus culture liquid [27]. CuO NPs synthesized with Aspergillus terreus culture liquid showed anticancer activity in a concentration-dependent manner [30]. Other works showed that CuO nanospheres synthesized with A. terreus culture liquid had potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [28,29].
2.2. Myco-Synthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
Iron oxide is a mineral compound that exists in various polymorphic forms, the main of which are hematite (α-Fe2O3), maghemite (γ-Fe2O3), and magnetite (Fe3O4) [15]. Mycogenic NPs of iron oxides (III) and (IV) obtained by different researchers with different biological objects and precursors differ greatly in both size and shape (Table 2). Spherical, cubic, irregular, octahedral, and flakelike iron oxide nanoparticles were obtained with mushroom cultures.
Table 2. Myco-synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| α-Fe2O3 | Trichoderma harzianum | Mycelial extract | FeCl3 | Spherical (average size of 207 nm) | [37] |
| γ-Fe2O3 | Penicillium expansum | Mycelial extract | FeCl3 | Spherical (15.0–66.0 nm) | [38] |
| γ-Fe2O3/α-Fe2O3 | Alternaria alternata | Mycelial extract | Fe(NO3)3 | Cubic (average size of 9 nm) | [39] |
| Fe2O3 | Aspergillus niger | Bio-mass | FeCl3 | – | [40] |
| Fe2O3 | Fusarium incarnatum | Culture liquid | FeCl2 + FeCl3 | Spherical (average size of 30.56 nm) | [41] |
| Fe2O3 | Phialemoniopsis ocularis | Culture liquid | FeCl2 + FeCl3 | Spherical (average size of 13.13 nm) | [41] |
| Fe2O3 | Penicillium pimiteouiense | Culture liquid | FeCl2 + FeCl3 | Spherical (2–16 nm) | [42] |
| Fe2O3 | Trichoderma asperellum | Culture liquid | FeCl2 + FeCl3 | Spherical (average size of 25 nm) | [41] |
| Fe3O4 | Aspergillus niger | Mycelial extract | FeCl3 | Nanoflakes (20–40 nm) | [43] |
| Fe3O4 | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | Fe(NO3)3 | Spherical | [28,29] |
| Fe3O4 | Aspergillus tamarii | Culture liquid | FeSO4 + FeCl3 | Spherical (5–22 nm) | [44] |
| Fe3O4 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | K3[Fe(CN)6] + K4[Fe(CN)6] | Quasi-spherical (20–50 nm) | [45] |
| Fe3O4 | Fusarium solani | Bio-mass | Fe2O3 | Cubic, spherical, irregular (55.3–84.2 nm) | [46] |
| Fe3O4 | Verticillium sp. | Bio-mass | K3[Fe(CN)6] + K4[Fe(CN)6] | Cubo-octahedral (100–400 nm) | [45] |
| FexOy | Amanita muscaria | Fruit body extract | FeCl2 + FeCl3 | 2.2–2.5 nm | [47] |
| FexOy | Aspergillus japonicus | Bio-mass | K3[Fe(CN)6] + K4[Fe(CN)6] | Cubic (60–70 nm) | [48] |
| FexOy | Pleurotus florida | Bio-mass | FeCl2 | Cubic (11.90–167.63 nm) | [36] |
| FeSO4 | Spherical (11.16–98.81 nm), highly agglomerated |
2.3. Titanium Oxide NPs
Titanium oxide (TiO2) NPs are yet another important NPs with outstanding properties. Three mineral forms of TiO2 that are known to occur naturally are anatase, rutile, and brookite. TiO2 NPs have a wide range of applications owing to their chemical stability, low toxicity, biocompatibility, and good corrosion resistance [52]. Thanks to their high antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer activity, they are important tools in diagnostics, therapeutics, and drug delivery [53]. Various micro- and macro-mycetes can produce TiO2 NPs with their living cultures, extracts, bio-mass, and even spores (Table 3).
Table 3. Myco-synthesis of titanium oxide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TiO2 | Agaricus bisporus | Spores | Ti(OC3H7)4 | – | [54] |
| TiO2 | Aspergillus flavus | Bio-mass | TiO2 | Spherical, oval (62–74 nm) | [55] |
| TiO2 | Aspergillus flavus | Mycelial extract | TiO2 | 12–15 nm | [56] |
| TiO2 | Aspergillus niger | Mycelial extract | TiO2 salt | Spherical (73.58–106.9 nm) | [57] |
| TiO2 | Aspergillus tubingensis | Mycelial extract | TiO2 salt | Cubic, pentangular (1.5–30 nm) | [58] |
| TiO2 | Fomes fomentarius | Fruit body extract | Ti{OCH(CH3)2}4 | Irregular (80–120 nm) | [59] |
| TiO2 | Fomitopsis pinicola | Fruit body extract | Ti{OCH(CH3)2}4 | Irregular (80–120 nm) | [60] |
| TiO | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | K2TiF6 | Spherical (6–13 nm) | [61] |
| TiO2 | Humicola sp. | Bio-mass | Bulk TiO2 | Spherical (5–28 nm) | [62] |
| TiO2 | Hypsizygus ulmarius | Fruit body extract | TiCl4 | Spherical (average size of 80 nm) | [63] |
| TiO2 | Pleurotus djamor | Fruit body extract | TiCl4 | Spherical (average size of 31 nm) | [64] |
| TiO2 | Pleurotus sajor caju | Fruit body extract | TiCl4 | Spherical (average size of 85 nm) | [65] |
| TiO2 | Sachharomyces cerevisae | Living culture | TiO(OH)2 | Spherical (average size of 12.57 nm) | [66] |
| TiO2 | Sachharomyces cerevisae | Living culture | TiCl4 | Oval (10–12 nm), mesoporous | [67] |
| TiO2 | Sachharomyces cerevisae | Living culture | TiCl3 | Spherical (average size of 6.7 nm) | [68] |
| TiO2 | Tricoderma citrinoviride | Mycelial extract | Ti{OCH(CH3)2}4 | Irregular, triangular, pentagonal, spherical, rod-shaped (10–400 nm) | [69] |
| TiO2 | Trichoderma viride | Culture liquid | TiO(OH)2 | Spherical (60–86.67 nm) | [70] |
The ability to synthesize TiO2 NPs was found in various Aspergillus species. Spherical and oval 62–74-nm TiO2 NPs with antibacterial properties were fabricated with A. flavus bio-mass [55]. TiO2 NPs of 12–15 nm synthesized with an A. flavus mycelial extract demonstrated a strong growth-enhancing effect on mung beans and thus can be used as a plant nutrient fertilizer [56]. TiO2 nanospheres (73.58–106.9 nm) generated with an A. niger extract were found a potent mosquito larvicidal agent [57]. TiO2 NPs produced with an Aspergillus tubingensis mycelial extract were cubic and pentameric, with a size of 1.5–30 nm [58].
2.4. Myco-Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs have caught the attention of researchers owing to their extensive biological properties, including antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiviral, wound healing, and cardioprotective activity [71,72]. Their exceptional optical, electrical, and physiochemical properties make ZnO NPs an excellent option for electronics, optoelectronics, bioimaging, biosensors, drug and gene delivery [72,73]. To date, these NPs have been the most commonly studied of all mycogenic oxide NPs (Table 4). Mycogenic ZnO NPs are mostly spherical or hexagonal.
Table 4. Myco-synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ZnO | Acremonium potronii | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical (13–15 nm) | [74] |
| ZnO | Agarius bisporus | Fruit body extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical (average size of 14.48 nm) | [75] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus aeneus | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical (100–140 nm) | [76] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus fumigatus | Culture liquid | ZnSO4 | Spherical (60–80 nm) | [77] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus fumigatus | Mycelial extract | Zn(NO3)2 | Oblate spherical and hexagonal (1.2–6.8 nm) | [78] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus niger | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Nanorods (8–38 nm) | [79] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus niger | Crushed fungal powder | ZnCl2 | Hexagonal (average size of 66 nm) | [80] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | ZnSO4 | Spherical (28–63 nm) | [81] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus terreus | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical (10–45 nm) | [82] |
| ZnO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | ZnC4H6O4 | Almost spherical | [28,29] |
| ZnO | Cochliobolus geniculatus | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Quasi-spherical (2–6 nm) | [83] |
| ZnO | Cordyceps militaris | Fruit body extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical, irregular (average size of 1.83 nm) | [84] |
| ZnO | Daedalea sp. | Fruit body extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Irregular (average size of 14.58 nm) | [85] |
| ZnO | Fusarium keratoplasticum | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Hexagonal (10–42 nm) | [79] |
| ZnO | Lentinula edodes | Fruit body extract | Zn(NO3)2 | Cubic, hexagonal (average size of 50 nm) | [86] |
| ZnO | Periconium sp. | Mycelial extract | Zn(NO3)2 | Quasi-spherical (16–78 nm) | [87] |
| ZnO | Pichia kudriavzevii | Fungal extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Hexagonal (average size of 32 nm) | [88] |
| ZnO | Pleurotus djamor | Fruit body extract | Zn(NO3)2 | Nanorods, clusters (average size of 70–80 nm) | [64] |
| ZnO | Pleurotus florida | Bio-mass | ZnCl2 | Semi-spherical (21.27–118.36 nm) | [36] |
| ZnSO4 | Semi-spherical (9.36–58.13 nm) | ||||
| ZnO | Pleurotus floridanus | Culture liquid | Zn(NO3)2 | Spherical (average size of 34.98 nm) | [89] |
| ZnO | Pleurotus ostreatus | Fruit body extract | Zn(NO3)2 | Spherical (average size of 7.50 nm) | [90] |
| ZnO | Trichoderma harzianum | Mycelial extract | ZnSO4 | Fan- and bouquet-like structures (27–40 nm in width, 134–200 nm in length) | [33] |
| ZnO | Trichoderma harzianum | Mycelial extract | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Spherical (average size of 30.34 nm) | [91] |
| ZnO | Trichoderma viride | Culture liquid | Zn(CH3CO2)2 | Hexagonal (average size of 63.3 nm) | [92] |
The formation of ZnO nanospheres with sizes ranging between 13 and 15 nm was studied by using an Acremonium potronii mycelial extract [74]. The obtained ZnO NPs showed high photocatalytic activity for the degradation of methylene blue dye. ZnO nanospheres with an average size of 14.48 nm were fabricated with an aqueous extract of Agarius bisporus as a reducing agent [75]. These NPs were effective inhibitors of microbially influenced corrosion.
The correlation between the zinc tolerance of soil fungi and their potential for the synthesis of ZnO NPs was examined with 19 fungal isolates from the rhizo-spheric soil of plants naturally growing at a zinc mine area [76]. The Aspergillus aeneus isolate had a high zinc tolerance and potential for the extracellular synthesis of ZnO NPs. The result was the synthesis of spherical NPs (100–140 nm) coated with proteins, which served as stabilizers.
2.5. Myco-Synthesis of Nanoparticles of Other Elements
Fungal cultures can form oxides of many elements other than copper, iron, titanium, and zinc. These include magnesium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, zirconium, selenium, tellurium, silicon, cerium, silver, aluminium, bismuth, antimony, gadolinium, and ruthenium (Table 5). Many of these elements remain barely explored in terms of NP myco-synthesis, and their formation by fungal cultures has so far been described only in a few reports.
Table 5. Myco-synthesis of nanoparticles of other elements.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al2O3 | Colletotrichum sp. | Mycelial extract | AlCl3 | Spherical (average size of 30 nm) | [94] |
| AgO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | AgNO3 | Irregular spherical (60–100 nm) | [95] |
| Bi2O3 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | Bi(NO3)3 | Quasi-spherical (5–8 nm) | [96] |
| CeO2 | Aspergillus niger | Culture liquid | CeCl3 | Spherical (5–20 nm) | [97] |
| CeO2 | Aspergillus terreus | Mycelial extract | Ce(NO3)3 | Spherical (average size of 28.5 nm) | [98] |
| CeO2 | Fusarium solani | Culture liquid | CeCl3 | Spherical (20–30 nm) | [99] |
| CeO2 | Humicola sp. | Bio-mass | Ce(NO3)3 | Spherical (12–20 nm) | [100] |
| CeO2 | Talaromyces prupureogenus | Mycelial extract | Ce(NO3)3 | Nano-sponges (average size of 21.4 nm) | [98] |
| Co3O4 | Aspergillus brasiliensis | Mycelial extract | CoSO4 | Quasi-spherical (20–27 nm) | [101] |
| Co3O4 | Aspergillus nidulans | Bio-mass | Co(C5H7O2)2 | Spherical (average size of 20.29 nm) | [102] |
| Co3O4 | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | CoSO4 | Spherical | [28,29] |
| Gd2O3 | Humicola sp. | Bio-mass | GdCl3 | Quasi-spherical (3–8 nm) | [103] |
| MgO | Agaricus bisporus | Fruit body extract | Mg(CH3COO)2 | 29.6–38.6 nm | [104] |
| MgO | Aspergillus niger | Culture liquid | MgCl2 | Spherical (40–95 nm) | [105] |
| MgO | Aspergillus tubingensis | Mycelial extract | Mg(NO3)2 | Spherical (average size of 5.8 nm) | [106] |
| MgO | Trichoderma viride | Culture liquid | MgCl2 | 45.12–95.37 nm | [107] |
| MnxOy | Cladosporium halotolerans | Living culture | MnCl2 | Needle-like (2–6 nm in diameter, 0.1–1 μm in length) | [108] |
| Mn5O8 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | (CH3CO2)2Mn· | Quasi-spherical (8–13 nm) | [109] |
| NiO | Aspergillus aculeatus | Dead bio-mass | NiCl2 | Spherical (average size of 5.89 nm) | [110] |
| NiO | Aspergillus terreus | Culture liquid | NiSO4 | Spherical | [28,29] |
| NiO | Hypocrea lixii | Dead bio-mass | NiCl2 | Average size of 3.8 nm for extracellular and 1.25 nm for intracellular NPs | [111] |
| RuO2 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | RuCl3 | Spherical (2–5 nm) | [112] |
| Sb2O3 | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Fungal culture | SbCl3 | Spherical (2–10 nm) | [113] |
| SeO2 | Trichoderma harzianum | Living culture | Na2SeO3 | – | [114] |
| SiO2 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | K2SiF6 | Quasi-spherical (5–15 nm) | [61] |
| SiO2 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | Amorphous silica present in rice husk | Quasi-spherical (2–6 nm) | [115] |
| SiO2 | Saccharomyces cervisiae | Living culture | Sodium silicate | Spherical (40–70 nm) | [116] |
| TeO2 | Mortierella humilis | Living culture | Na2TeO3 | – | [114] |
| TeO2 | Trichoderma harzianum | Living culture | Na2TeO3 | – | [114] |
| ZrO2 | Fusarium oxysporum | Bio-mass | K2ZrF6 | Quasi-spherical (3–11 nm) | [117] |
| ZrO2 | Fusarium solani | Culture liquid | zirconyl nitrate | Spherical (40–50 nm) | [118] |
| ZrO2 | Penicillium aculeatum | Culture liquid | ZrCl4 | Spherical (average size of 39.32 nm) | [119] |
| ZrO2 | Penicillium notatum | Culture liquid | ZrCl4 | Spherical (average size of 62.27 nm) | [119] |
| ZrO2 | Penicillium purpurogenome | Culture liquid | ZrCl4 | Spherical (average size of 53.60 nm) | [119] |
Several research groups were able to prepare mycogenic NPs of cerium oxide. CeO2 nanospheres (5–20 nm) have been successfully obtained with an A. niger culture liquid filtrate [97]. The NPs showed a high antibacterial activity against pathogenic bacteria and larvicidal and pupicidal activity against mosquito vectors. Spherical 20–30-nm CeO2 NPs obtained with F. solani culture liquid showed a good antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against Psedomonas aeriginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus [99].
Electrochemical analysis shows that mycogenic NPs can be used in applications such as sensors, batteries, and supercapacitors. The bio-mass of the fungus Humicola sp. was able to extracellularly form highly stable, water-dispersible, and highly fluorescent CeO2 NPs [100]. These NPs were spherical, were 12–20 nm in diameter, and were naturally capped by proteins secreted by the fungus. Komal et al. synthesized morphologically different CeO2 NPs with mycelial extracts from two fungi, A. terreus and Talaromyces prupureogenus [98]. Pure CeO2 NPs synthesized with A. terreus were spherical, with an average size of 28.5 nm. CeO2 NPs formed by T. pupureogenus had a unique nano-sponge morphology and an average size of 21.4 nm. The nano-sponges were more active against Candida albicans than were spherical CeO2 NPs.
3. Myco-Synthesis of Chalcogenide Nanoparticles
Chalcogens are chemical elements from group 16 of the periodic table: oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium, and livemorioum. Oxygen is often treated separately from the other group 16 elements, or even excluded from the scope of the term “chalcogen”, owing to its very different chemical behavior from the other chalcogens [120]. Chemical compounds consisting of at least one chalcogen anion and at least one more electropositive element are called chalcogenides. The three most important groups of chalcogenides are sulfides, selenides, and tellurides. In recent years, fungi-assisted synthesis of chalcogenide NPs and nanomaterials has become of interest.
3.1. Myco-Synthesis of Sulfide Nanoparticles
Fungi-mediated synthesized sulfide NPs are the most commonly studied of all chalcogenides. One of the most important types of semiconductor nanomaterials with a wide band gap and with stability than that of the other chalcogenide NPs, sulfide NPs are more suitable for industrial applications, including high temperature operations, high voltage optoelectronic devices, and as high efficiency electric energy transformers and generators [13].
According to the data so far, fungal cultures can synthesize cadmium, zinc, and lead sulfide NPs. Several researchers have also found that some fungi can produce gold, silver, and copper sulfide NPs (Table 6).
Table 6. Myco-synthesis of sulfide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| α-Ag2S | Humicola sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | AgNO3, Na2SO3 | Spherical (15–40 nm) | [121] |
| Au2S | Humicola sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | HAuCl4, Na2SO3 | Spherical (20–30 nm) | [122] |
| CdS | Aspergillus niger | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, Na2S | Spherical (2.7–7.5 nm) | [123] |
| CdS | Candida glabrata | Living culture | Cd(NO3)2 | – | [124] |
| CdS | Fusarium oxysporum | Living culture | CdSO4 | 5–20 nm | [125] |
| CdS | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | Cd(NO3)2, sulfur waste | Spherical (average size of 6 nm) | [126] |
| CdS | Fusarium sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | CdSO4 | Spherical (80–120 nm) | [127] |
| CdS | Phanerochaete chrysosporium | Living culture | Cd(NO3)2 | Average size of 2.56 nm | [128] |
| CdS | Pleurotus ostreatus | Mycelial bio-mass | CdSO4, Na2S | Spherical (4–5 nm) | [129] |
| CdS | Rhizopus stolonifer | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, ZnS | Average size of 8.8 nm | [130] |
| CdS | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | CdS solution | Spherical (average size of 3.57 nm) | [131] |
| CdS | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Bio-mass | CdCl2, Na2S | Spherical (average size of 2 nm) | [132] |
| CdS | Schizosaccharo-myces pombe | Living culture | CdSO4 | Average size of 1.8 nm | [133] |
| CdS | Schizosaccharo-myces pombe | Living culture | CdSO4 | 1–1.5 nm | [134] |
| CdS | Schizosaccharo-myces pombe | Living culture | Cd(NO3)2 | – | [124] |
| CdS | Termitomyces heimii | Fruit body extract | Cd(NO3)2, Na2S | Spherical (3–5 nm) | [135] |
| CdS | Trametes versicolor | Living culture | Cd(NO3)2 | Spherical (average size of 6 nm) | [136] |
| CdS | Trichoderma harzianum | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, Na2S | Spherical (3–8 nm) | [137] |
| CdS | Trichosporon jirovecii | Living culture | CdCl2 | Spherical (6–15 nm) | [138] |
| CuS | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | CuSO4 | Spherical (2–5 nm) | [139] |
| CuS | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | Copper mine wastewaters | 10–40 nm | [140] |
| PbS | Aspergillus flavus | Living culture | Pb(C2H3O2)2, Na2S | 35–100 nm | [141] |
| PbS | Rhodosporidium diobovatum | Bio-mass | Pb(NO3)2 | Spherical (2–5 nm) | [142] |
| PbS | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | Pb(C2H3O2)2, Na2S | Spherical (0.667–6.95 nm) | [143] |
| PbS | Torulopsis sp. | Living culture | Pb(NO3)2 | 2–5 nm | [144] |
| ZnS | Agaricus bisporus | Fruit body extract | ZnCl2, Na2S | Almost spherical (2.1–3.5 nm) | [145] |
| ZnS | Aspergillus flavus | Mycelial bio-mass | ZnSO4 | Spherical (average size of 18 nm) | [146,147] |
| ZnS:Gd | Aspergillus flavus | Mycelial bio-mass | ZnSO4, Gd(NO3)2 | Spherical (10–18 nm) | [148] |
| ZnS | Aspergillus sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | ZnSO4 | Spherical (average size of 11.08 nm) | [149] |
| ZnS | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | ZnSO4 | Spherical (average size of 42 nm) | [150] |
| ZnS | Penicillium sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | ZnSO4 | Spherical (average size of 6.3 nm) | [151] |
| ZnS | Pleurotus ostreatu | Fruit body extract | ZnCl2, Na2S | Almost spherical (2.1–3.5 nm) | [152] |
| ZnS | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Bio-mass | ZnSO4 | Spherical (30–40 nm) | [153] |
3.2. Myco-Synthesis of Selenide Nanoparticles
Selenides are another important class of chalcogenide semiconductors. Their potential applications include photocatalysis, bioimaging and biolabeling, and nanomedicine [156]. Mycogenic selenide NPs obtained by bio-nanotechnologists so far include cadmium, lead, silver, gold, indium, and neodymium selenides. To date, they have been obtained mostly with fungal bio-mass or living cultures (Table 7).
Table 7. Myco-synthesis of selenide nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ag2Se | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | AgNO3, Na2SeO3 | Average size of 3.9 nm | [157] |
| AuSe | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | HAuCl4, SeCl4 | Spherical (average size of 52 nm) | [158] |
| CdSe | Candida utilis | Living culture | CdCl2, Na2SeO3 | Average size of 4.38 nm | [159] |
| CdSe | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, SeCl4 | Average size of 11 nm | [160] |
| CdSe | Helminthosporum solani | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, SeCl4 | Spherical, cubic (average size of 5.5 nm) | [161] |
| CdSe | Rhodotorula mucilaginosa | Bio-mass | CdCl2, Na2SeO3 |
Average size of 3.2 nm | [162] |
| CdSe | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | CdCl2, Na2SeO3 | 15–20 nm | [163] |
| CdSe | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | CdCl2, Na2SeO3 | Average size of 2.8 nm | [164] |
| CdSe | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Bio-mass | CdCl2, Na2SeO3 | – | [165] |
| InSe | Aspergillus niger | Living culture | InCl3, Na2SeO3 | <10 nm | [166] |
| Nd2Se3 | Fusarium oxysporum | Fungal nitrate-dependent reductase | NdCl2, SeCl4 | Spherical (average size of 18 nm) | [167] |
| PbSe | Aspergillus terreus | – | – | Nanorods (average size of 59 nm) | [168] |
| PbSe | Trichoderma sp. | Mycelial bio-mass | Pb(NO3)2, SeO2 | Cubic (10–30 nm) | [169] |
The most widely studied mycogenic selenide NPs are cadmium selenide (CdSe) NPs, and their synthesis with yeasts is the best studied so far [159,162,163,164,165,170]. Various conditions for CdSe QD synthesis with S. cerevisiae were investigated and optimized to obtain particles with a controllable size and with tunable fluorescence emission [163]. Brooks and Lefebvre examined the ability of S. cerevisiae sequentially treated with sodium selenite and cadmium chloride to synthesize CdSe QDs in the cytoplasm [164]. They optimized biosynthesis conditions for the highest yield of QDs, and through the optimized method they obtained fluorescent QDs with an average particle diameter of 2.8 nm. Shao et al. studied Se precursors and Se metabolic flux in the synthesis of CdSe QDs in S. cerevisiae and improved their ability to synthesize CdSe QDs through gene modification [165]. They identified selenocysteine as the primary Se precursor in the intracellular biosynthesis of CdSe QDs. Further studies showed that the seleno-methionine-to-selenocysteine pathway regulates CdSe QD biosynthesis. Seleno-methionine synthesis was enhanced by overexpression of the MET6 gene, and the yield of CdSe QDs in the engineered cells was increased.
3.3. Myco-Synthesis of Telluride Nanoparticles
Yet another group of chalcogenides consists of the tellurides, which also show outstanding properties and potential applications in optical, electronic, thermoelectrical, energy storing, catalytic, magnetic, and biological fields [171,172]. Their antimicrobial and anticancer properties allow them to be used in nanomedicine [173]. The fungal synthesis of NPs of these compounds has been poorly studied and has been described by only a few researchers (Table 8).
Table 8. Myco-synthesis of telluride nanoparticles.
| NP | Species | Source | Precursors | Shape and Size | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CdTe | Fusarium oxysporum | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, TeCl4 | Spherical (15–20 nm) | [174] |
| CdTe | Rhizopus stolonifer | Mycelial bio-mass | CdCl2, TeCl4 | QDs (average size of 7.6 nm) | [133] |
| CdTe | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Living culture | CdCl2, Na2TeO3 | QDs (2.0–3.6 nm) | [175] |
| InTe | Aspergillus niger | Living culture | InCl3, K2TeO3 | <10 nm | [166] |
The ability to fabricate CdTe NPs has been found in several species of micro-mycetes. Highly fluorescent biocompatible CdTe QDs capped with proteins were synthesized with S. cerevisiae cells [175]. The synthesized QDs, obtained after 8 days of incubation, were well-dispersed particles with a uniform diameter of about 3.6 nm. When the incubation time was shortened to 2 days, the resulting CdTe QDs were smaller (about 2.2 nm). The CdTe QDs obtained with F. oxysporum mycelial bio-mass were also highly fluorescent and were stable and biocompatible [174]. These NPs were spherical, were 15–20 nm in diameter, and showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Biocompatible CdTe QDs with an average size of 7.6 nm were also obtained with R. stolonifer [133]. The study of the simultaneous removal of indium, selenium, and tellurium by A. niger from media showed accumulation of elementary Te NPs and indium telluride NPs within mycelial pellets [166].
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/biomimetics8020224
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