Reducing Carbon Emissions from Maritime tourism: Comparison
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Reducing the carbon emissions from hotels on non-interconnected islands (NII) is essential in the context of a low carbon future for the Mediterranean region. Maritime tourism is the major source of income for Greece and many other countries in the region, as well as hot-temperate and tropical regions worldwide. Like many NIIs, Rhodes attracts a high influx of tourists every summer, doubling the island’s energy demand and, given the high proportion of fossil fuels in the Rhodian energy supply, increasing carbon emissions.

  • energy system optimisation
  • carbon dioxide reduction

1. Introduction

International tourism contributes to almost 5% of total global carbon emissions [1], and the NII Rhodes is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe [2]. The island is a host to a medieval old town, which has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site [3] and boasts a number of attractive beaches. These attractions, combined with the island’s hot summer weather [4], draw a large influx of visitors in the high season from June to September. Between 2010 and 2020, the number of tourists visiting Rhodes reached an annual peak tourist-to-resident ratio of 3:1 in the months of July and August [2]. Whilst tourism is undoubtedly of enormous benefit to the economy of the island [5], it not only generates higher demand for hotel accommodation, swimming pool amenities, and bar and restaurant services but also causes a spike in the use of air conditioning for thermal comfort [2]. With 85.7% of the energy demand on Rhodes met by fossil fuels [6], increased energy consumption is closely correlated with higher greenhouse gas emissions. Data recorded on the popular Greek holiday island of Crete highlights that 13% of carbon emissions per visitor trip can be attributed to the accommodation sector. The remaining carbon emissions are associated with transport and visitor activities (81% and 6%, respectively) [7]. Moreover, as [8] points out, 10% of total Greek energy demand is attributable to the hotel sector, a significant proportion of this demand (75%) being generated by heating and cooling spaces and for heating water, respectively. Both studies demonstrate the considerable impact of tourist hotels on increased energy demand and, consequently, carbon dioxide emissions, in particular in the case of the Greek islands.
Electricity consumption data for Rhodes, published by the Hellenic Electricity Distribution Network Operator (HEDNO), closely correlate with the evidence provided by other sources [5,7,8][5][7][8] (Figure 1). As expected, a spike in electricity consumption can be observed during the peak of the tourist season. The comparative dip in electricity consumption in the summer of 2020, when visitor numbers fell in the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic, is further evidence of the impact of tourism on electricity consumption. On a positive note, like most NIIs, Rhodes offers a high potential for renewable energy production, in particular wind and solar [2[2][9],9], providing the island with ample opportunity to cover part or all of its energy requirements with renewable energy sources (RES). Moreover, the large proportion of carbon emissions attributed to the tourist accommodation sector highlights the vast carbon reduction potential associated with increased use of RES and reduced energy consumption in hotels and other residential buildings [10]. This may prove to be a highly beneficial attribute with a view to mitigating climate change.
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Figure 1. Electricity consumption for Rhodes recorded by the Hellenic Electricity Distribution Network Operator (HEDNO) between January 2019 and March 2021. Blue represents the proportion of the electricity demand supplied via renewable energy sources (RES) (wind and solar), and orange represents fossil fuel-based electricity supplies (diesel and heavy fuel). The proportion of energy demand met by RES per month has been outlined above each bar [6,11].
It is evident that there is a strong interest in reducing carbon emissions in the European hotel sector. However, very few studies have analysed individual hotels on NIIs where the levels of tourism-related carbon emissions are extremely high, and fossil fuels are extensively consumed. This restudyearch was conducted in order to characterise the key energy usage patterns of a typical Mediterranean hotel and identify a suitable supplementation of grid-supplied, fossil-derived power by low-carbon, locally installed photovoltaic renewable energy systems, the aim being to generate significant savings in both carbon emissions and energy expenses.

2. Current State of Affairs—Greece

In summer 2021, Greece was impacted by what is considered to be ‘its worst heatwave in more than 30 years’ [12][11]. With close to record-breaking temperatures of 46-degrees Celsius [13][12], wildfires have caused residents near Athens to flee their homes. This heatwave is considered to be the worst since July 1987, when over one thousand deaths were recorded in and around the capital in the period 20–31 July [14][13]. One concomitant cause of these fatalities was the heat stress experienced by residents when daytime air temperatures ranged between 40–45 degrees Celsius [14][13]. It should be noted that cooling technologies were then not as widely accessible as they are today. Given that a major proportion of the energy demand of the Greek hotel sector is attributable to cooling [8], the use of air conditioning can be expected to have risen even further throughout the 2021 heatwave, and in general, given the increasing frequency of such heatwaves caused by climate change. This means that in order to meet the increased cooling demand, Rhodian fossil fuel power plants will be operating at maximum capacity, thereby further exacerbating climate change. Moreover, the unreliability of NII energy systems causes frequent blackouts and energy shortages during periods of high demand [10]. Loss of electricity for cooling is a major risk during heatwaves when heat stress has proven to be a threat to human health [14][13]. The rise in heatwave frequency and extremity, coupled with the increased risk of energy shortages, demonstrates the importance of creating self-sustaining energy systems with an increased share of RES in energy production. In the wake of the current climate crisis, Greece plans to connect most of its NIIs with the mainland by 2030 [15][14]. This will have a positive impact on the energy system of Rhodes, not only generating a more efficient and reliable energy supply but also reducing the currently high energy production costs associated with the import of fossil fuels [10]. The Greek National Energy and Climate Plan has set out specific objectives to attain energy and climate goals by 2030 [15][14]. These objectives include a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by over 56% compared with 2005 emission levels, an increase in the share of RES in energy consumption to a minimum of 35%, and greater efficiency of energy use [15][14]. To support this initiative, a number of schemes have been implemented to help private individuals, small businesses, and public entities to expand the proportion of RES in their energy mix. An initiative of specific interest in this context is a support scheme for electricity generation by means of PV panels on both the mainland and NIIs [16][15]. This scheme is a net metering programme that allows users who produce their own electricity by means of PV systems to export their surplus energy back to the grid. It has to be noted that in the framework of net metering, maximum capacity limits are defined for the installed PV systems: for non-interconnected islands, PV systems need to be smaller than 10 kWp or have less than 50% of the agreed power consumption [16][15]. For the hotel under investigation, 50% of the agreed electricity consumption of 265.8 kW is not reached even with maximum expansion, so the expansion of PV in the case presented here is not limited by the maximum capacity limit. Incentives of this kind encourage individuals to increase the share of RES in energy production and thus contribute to reducing carbon emissions.

3. Sustainable Energy Systems

A wide range of studies have already analysed the most effective methods of reducing carbon emissions in energy production. For the purposes of this report, papers analysing sustainable island energy systems and individual residential energy systems were evaluated in order to identify appropriate strategies to reduce carbon emissions within the tourist accommodation sector on NIIs. The high costs associated with fuel imports, the vast RES potential available on Greek islands, and the National Energy and Climate Plan initiatives have provided an incentive for various Greek NIIs to maximise the use of RES in their energy systems in recent years. A string of Greek islands are currently striving towards or have already achieved a self-sustained or carbon-neutral energy supply (Table 1). However, inadequate interconnection to the mainland poses a number of challenges to the integration of high RES ratios [17][16]. Given the intermittent nature of RES, guaranteeing sufficiently high energy storage capacity to accommodate excess power generation during high generation periods (e.g., high solar irradiance or optimal wind conditions) is particularly critical in this context [11].
Table 1. NII Greek islands and their objectives to achieve carbon neutrality.
Island Main Actions/Objectives References
Astypalea Currently replacing the existing vehicle fleet with e-vehicles; the introduction of a hybrid RES system has already reduced the use of fossil fuels. [10,18][10][17]
Kythnos
  • Incorporating renewable energy technologies [10,18,20][10][17][19];
Increased use of solar and wind energy sources; installation of village-scale microgrids and lithium-ion battery storage systems.
[11,[1819]]
Ikaria Introduction of a hybrid RES system with energy storage. [11] 
Tilos Introduction of a hybrid power station (wind and solar) as well as battery energy storage. [20][19]
Sifnos Targeting self-sufficiency by means of a 100% renewable energy supply to be achieved using wind energy, solar, and wind hybrid power plants and hydro hybrid power plants. [21][20]
 
Analysis of studies on the carbon reduction in European hotels or buildings highlights that the following factors contribute to promoting sustainability in the accommodation sector as a whole:
  • Improving a building’s structure to enhance energy efficiency and prevent unnecessary heat losses/gains [8,22
  • Implementing energy-saving strategies—inter alia key cards, thermostat controls and energy-saving light bulbs [8]—to reduce energy consumption;
  • Understanding public perception as a critical element in promoting the popularity of ‘green hotels’ [23][22];
  • Hotels are ultimately businesses that seek financial gain [8], hence the importance of optimising a hotel energy system in terms of both carbon emissions and costs.

References

  1. UNWTO. Annual Report 2017; UNWTO World Tourism Organisation: Madrid, Spain, 2017; pp. 10–20.
  2. Sourianos, E.; Kyriakou, K.; Vagiona, D. Tourism development and carrying capacity in the Rhodes Island, Greece. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics (CEMEPE 2011) & SECOTOX Conference, Skiathos Island, Greece, 19–24 June 2011.
  3. UNESCO. Medieval City of Rhodes. 2021. Available online: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/493/ (accessed on 24 July 2021).
  4. WorldWeatherOnline.com. Rhodes Historical Weather. 2021. Available online: https://www.worldweatheronline.com/rhodes-weather-history/south-aegean/gr.aspx (accessed on 24 July 2021).
  5. Işik, C.; Kasımatı, E.; Ongan, S. Analyzing the causalities between economic growth, financial development, international trade, tourism expenditure and/on the CO2 emissions in Greece. Energy Sources Part BEcon. Plan. Policy 2017, 12, 665–673.
  6. HEDNO. RES Energy Generation at NIIs|HEDNO. 2021. Available online: https://www.deddie.gr/en/themata-tou-diaxeiristi-mi-diasundedemenwn-nisiwn/agora-mdn/stoixeia-ekkathariseon-kai-minaion-deltion-mdn/statistika-stoixeia-ilektrikwn-sustimatwn-sta-mdn/paragogi-energeias-ape-mdn/ (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  7. Vourdoubas, J. Estimation of Carbon Emissions due to Tourism in the Island of Crete, Greece. J. Tour. Hosp. Manag. 2019, 7, 24–32.
  8. Parpairi, K. Sustainability and Energy Use in Small Scale Greek Hotels: Energy Saving Strategies and Environmental Policies. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2017, 38, 169–177.
  9. Kaldellis, J.; Simotas, M.; Zafirakis, D.; Kondili, E. Optimum autonomous photovoltaic solution for the Greek islands on the basis of energy pay-back analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2009, 17, 1311–1323.
  10. Katsoulakos, N. An Overview of the Greek Islands’ Autonomous Electrical Systems: Proposals for a Sustainable Energy Future. Smart Grid Renew. Energy 2019, 10, 55–82.
  11. DW.COM. 2021. Greece Faces Worst Heat Wave in over Three Decades DW 02.08.2021. Available online: https://www.dw.com/en/greece-faces-worst-heat-wave-in-over-three-decades/a-58736438 (accessed on 6 August 2021).
  12. Euronews. Thousands flee as Wildfires Reach Residential Areas North of Athens. 2021. Available online: https://www.euronews.com/2021/08/02/greece-is-being-hit-by-worst-heatwave-in-30-years-says-pm (accessed on 6 August 2021).
  13. Matzarakis, A.; Mayer, H. The extreme heat wave in Athens in July 1987 from the point of view of human biometeorology. Atmos. Environ. Part B Urban Atmos. 1991, 25, 203–211.
  14. Hellenic Republic Ministry of the Environment and Energy. National Energy and Climate Plan. pp. 1–7. 2019. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/el_final_necp_main_en.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  15. Maroulis, G. Feed-In Tariff II (Rooftop PV). 2019. Available online: http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/greece/single/s/res-e/t/promotion/aid/net-metering-law-no34682006-amended-by-law-no42032013/lastp/139 (accessed on 12 April 2022).
  16. Kougias, I.; Szabó, S.; Nikitas, A.; Theodossiou, N. Sustainable energy modelling of non-interconnected Mediterranean islands. Renew. Energy 2019, 133, 930–940.
  17. Hellenic Republic—Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Transforming Astypalea Into the First Smart, Green Island in the Mediterranean with Energy Autonomy—Meetings—Events. 2020. Available online: https://www.mfa.gr/en/current-affairs/news-announcements/transforming-astypalea-into-the-first-smart-green-island-in-the-mediterranean-with-energy-autonomy.html (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  18. Dafninetwork.gr. The Energy Storage in Kythnos Has Started! DAFNI Network of Sustainable Greek Islands. 2019. Available online: https://dafninetwork.gr/en/the-energy-storage-in-kythnos-has-started/ (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  19. Kaldellis, J. Supporting the Clean Electrification for Remote Islands: The Case of the Greek Tilos Island. Energies 2021, 14, 1336.
  20. European Union. Clean Energy Transition Agenda Sifnos Island. Clean Energy for EU Islands. 2019. Available online: https://euislands.eu/sites/default/files/2019-11/SIFNOS_FinalTransitionAgenda_20191118.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2021).
  21. Cheung, M.; Fan, J. Carbon reduction in a high-density city: A case study of Langham Place Hotel Mongkok Hong Kong. Renew. Energy 2013, 50, 433–440.
  22. Navratil, J.; Picha, K.; Buchecker, M.; Martinat, S.; Svec, R.; Brezinova, M.; Knotek, J. Visitors’ preferences of renewable energy options in “green” hotels. Renew. Energy 2019, 138, 1065–1077.
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