Effects of Metal Oxides on Growth of Rice: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Lindsay Dong and Version 1 by Kai Song.

The extensive usage of metal oxide nanoparticles has aided in the spread and accumulation of these nanoparticles in the environment, potentially endangering both human health and the agroecological system. All of the effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on rice development and growth have a two-fold biological effect.  Iron oxide nanoparticles have no discernible toxic effects on rice. The use of MONPs should be rigorously regulated in terms of timing and frequency, and their content should undergo frequent testing. Avoid secondary harm to rice as much as you can from improper application and excessive concentration.

  • metal oxide nanoparticles/rice
  • oxidative stress
  • heavy metal stress

1. Introduction

Metal oxide nanomaterials exhibit outstanding physicochemical properties such as a high specific surface area, electron mobility, thermal stability, mechanical strength, and surface defects due to their unique nano-size [1[1][2][3],2,3], allowing for their wide application in adsorbent materials, nano-fertilizers, catalytic materials, nano-pesticides, and pollutant sensors [4,5,6,7,8][4][5][6][7][8]. With human activity, nanoparticles are constantly being released into the environment. Once ingested by living things, they might collect in certain tissues or organs and eventually have major impacts [9], leading to new safety hazards in agricultural production [10].

2. Effect of MONPs on the Growth of Rice

2.1. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs) are widely utilized in a variety of industries, including catalysis, bioengineering, and medicine, and they gradually enter the agroecological environment mostly through wastewater excretion and atmospheric emissions [22,23][11][12]. As a form of nanoparticles, it is inevitable that they have some phytotoxicity toward plants. However, the vast majority of research has demonstrated that Fe2O3 NPs can help rice seeds germinate, reduce oxidative stress brought on by abiotic stressors, and aid in rice growth. Additionally, they can be applied as a nano-fertilizer to help rice seedlings grow better in unfavorable soil circumstances, including iron deficiency and drought. As early as 2013, Alidoust et al. demonstrated that citric-acid-coated 6 nm Fe2O3 NPs can act as an accelerator to increase the length of rice roots and are less toxic than micron iron oxide under reducing conditions [22][11]. Since then, various iron oxide nanoparticles for rice seed germination have been increasingly studied. Among them, iron oxide nanoparticles prepared from Cassia occidentalis L. flower extract were shown to penetrate the rice seed coat [24][13], inhibit dormancy which enhanced starch metabolism, and significantly promote germination of ecological stress-sensitive, early flowering pure mutant rice. Fe2O3 NPs also inhibit the synthesis of growth hormones and abscisic acid in the roots of transgenic and non-transgenic rice [25][14]. In 2017, Sebastian et al. synthesized carbon-encapsulated Fe3O4 NPs with ferric chloride and caffeic acid to significantly improve calcium-induced Fe deficiency in rice [26][15]. The study provided a practical solution to improve Fe deficiency in crops caused by calcareous soils in agriculture. Moreover, Li et al. also found that low doses of zero-valent iron (ZVI) and Fe3O4 NPs could be used as an alternative to Fe fertilizers and improve plant growth under Fe-deficient conditions by alleviating oxidative stress and regulating phytohormones in rice plants caused by Fe deficiency [23][12]. In addition, Sainao et al. used MNPs-Fe3O4 (iron oxide nanoparticles containing both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions) to mitigate the toxic effects of 3-nitrophenol on rice seedlings [27,28,29][16][17][18]. Bao et al. treated rice with Fe2O3 NPs and oxytetracycline (OTC) separately, and their accumulation on the root surface, above-ground parts, and inside the roots showed a decreasing pattern. Meanwhile, the combined treatment increased the distribution of both on the root surface of the rice, where oxytetracycline promoted the adsorption of Fe on the root surface and Fe2O3 NPs promoted the content of oxytetracycline in the rice roots. This phenomenon may be because OTC stabilizes Fe2+ in solution from the reductive dissolution of Fe2O3 NPs through complexation with Fe2+, and Fe2O3 NPs can eliminate the effect of OTC. The study demonstrates the complexity of the effects of pollution in agroecosystems on rice growth [30][19].

2.2. Copper Oxide Nanoparticles

Due to their excellent thermal, electrical conductivity, catalytic, and antibacterial properties, copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are widely used in electronics, chemicals, machinery, and agriculture. These particles also gradually enter the soil and water bodies of the agroecological environment with human activities [12][20]. The area of agricultural soils that are contaminated with copper is currently growing each year, and the soil’s copper (Cu) concentration is also rising each year, which has varying degrees of negative impacts on crop growth, development, and yield [43][21]. Copper is a trace element that is involved in numerous metabolic processes in rice. However, excessive copper ions can be hazardous to organisms. Additionally, due to their special characteristics, CuO NPs are more likely to interact with other chemicals [44][22]. Cu’s harmful effects on rice are mostly seen as a reduction in tillering, a delay in fertility, and inhibition of root and shoot growth [45][23]. CuO NPs typically interact with rice in the form of both the actual nanoparticles and precipitated Cu2+, leading to a variety of reactions, such as oxidative stress. Additionally, they benefit rice tissue culture, seed mineral management, and arsenic stress reduction. In 2014, Peng et al. found that CuO NPs could enter the epidermis, ectodermis, and cortex of rice roots under hydroponic conditions, and finally reach the endodermis, but it was difficult to pass through the Casparian strip [12][20]; however, the formation of lateral roots provided a potential pathway for CuO NPs to enter the stem. During the transfer of CuO NPs, dissolved Cu is bound to cysteine, citrate, salt, and phosphate ligands, in which some Cu(II) is converted to Cu(I). Cu in rice root cells and cell voids exists as Cu-citrate and CuO NPs, respectively [12][20]. Additionally, CuO NPs, like iron oxide nanoparticles, inhibit arsenic uptake while attenuating the detrimental effects of arsenic stress on rice shoot length and root branching number [18][24]. Stress treatment with arsenic and CuO NPs alone significantly reduced the rice germination rate, especially inhibiting the growth of the above- and below-ground parts of seedlings. However, when the two nanoparticles were applied to the rice, CuO NPs shortened the rice tassel stage, accelerated rice maturation, and reduced the arsenic content in rice seeds [57,58][25][26]. Consistent with the study, Wang et al. found that CuO bulk particles, CuO NPs, and Cu2+ could reduce the amount of arsenic (III) in the seeds in total arsenic throughout the life cycle of rice [59][27].

2.3. Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are one of the widely utilized MONPs, showing promising applications in medicine, textiles, sensors, optical materials, catalysts, optical materials, and ceramics [60][28]. Previous studies have shown that ZnO NPs can be absorbed by the roots of rice seedlings, causing stomatal closure and damage to the ultrastructure, accelerating the synthesis of the phytohormone ethylene, causing oxidative stress in rice seedlings, and significantly inhibiting the growth of rice seedling roots [14,61,62][29][30][31]. However, rice FT-INTERACTING PROTEIN 7 enhances rice tolerance to ZnO NPs by inhibiting auxin synthesis [60][28], while the exogenous application of melatonin alleviates the oxidative damage induced by ZnO NPs and abates the inhibitory effect on rice growth [63][32]. In addition, ZnO NPs synthesized using Senna occidentalis L. leaf extract acted on rice by root exposure and foliar spraying [64][33], reducing photosynthetic efficiency and affecting dormancy time, flowering, and fruit set in rice. However, seed priming with polyethylene glycol will slightly mitigate this toxic effect [65][34]. ZnO NPs are crucial in reducing Cd stress in rice because Cd and zinc (Zn) are environmental competitors, share many chemical characteristics, and have the same uptake pathways in plants. In 2019, Zhang et al. reported that ZnO NPs could enhance soil pH and reduce the toxic effect of Cd on rice. The higher concentration had the most significant promotion effect on the early growth of rice, as demonstrated by increasing the biomass, tiller number, and plant height of rice [19][35]. In the same year, Ali et al. used foliar sprays to increase rice biomass and photosynthesis using only ZnO NPs or combined with biochar, with the latter effectively reducing the Cd concentrations in rice roots and increasing Zn concentrations in rice rhizomes [66][36]. Similar phenomena were observed by Faizan, Li, and Wang et al. [67,68,69][37][38][39]. 

2.4. Other Metal Oxide Nanoparticles

Cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) have the unique electronic layer structure of rare earth elements and strong redox ability and are often used in biomedical antioxidants, automotive catalysts, UV-absorbing materials, and antimicrobial functional materials [80][40]. This nanomaterial gradually flows into the environment with the emission of exhaust gases and vehicle exhaust is absorbed by rice through the root system and stomata, etc., and affects the growth and development of rice [81][41]. The effects of CeO2 NPs on oxidative stress, membrane damage, antioxidant enzyme activity, and macromolecular changes in the roots of rice seedlings were investigated by Rico et al. in 2013 [82][42]. They noted that the cerium content in rice positively correlated with the concentration of nanoparticles, but the impacts on rice seedlings were insignificant [83][43]. The team analyzed the effects of CeO2 NPs on cerium (Ce) accumulation, antioxidant properties, and nutrient composition in three rice varieties with high, medium, and low straight-chain starch, and found that CeO2 NPs were able to reduce the content of iron, proline, and starch in rice grains, and reduce all of the antioxidant values in the grains except for flavonoids. Rice of medium straight-chain starch varieties was the most sensitive to CeO2 NPs [84][44]. TiO2 NPs are similar to the previously mentioned MONPs and can also alleviate the toxic effects of Cd and arsenic on rice [20,92,93,94][45][46][47][48]. Moreover, the combined action of TiO2 and CeO2 nanoparticles and humic acid can reduce the adsorption of Cu to seedlings and alleviate the toxic effect of Cu on seedlings [95][49]. In contrast, its co-treatment with tetracycline on rice seedlings leads to severe iron deficiency in rice as tetracycline increases the accumulation of titanium in rice, while TiO2 NPs inhibit the adsorption of tetracycline to rice and alleviate the toxic effect of tetracycline on rice [96][50]. These studies have focused on the potential effects of nanoparticles on crops under conditions of coexistence with other environmental pollutants, facilitating future remediation of complex environments. Based on earlier research, Du et al. observed rice throughout its entire life cycle and found that elevated CO2 concentrations could encourage rice growth when TiO2 NPs were present [97][51] and that an increase in CO2 would alter the nutrient value of TiO2 NPs for rice and the function of the soil microbial community [98][52]. The team’s findings provide new ideas on the tolerance of rice to climate and environmental changes. In addition, α-MoO3 nanoparticles also have toxic effects on rice seedlings, leading to oxidative stress in rice [16][53]. High concentrations of Y2O3 nanoparticles not only inhibit rice germination and root growth, but also cause oxidative damage to rice cells. However, low concentrations of Y2O3 nanoparticles can promote the growth and development of rice seedling roots [99][54]. In addition, Ahmed et al. synthesized magnesium oxide nanoparticles to alleviate the stressful effects of arsenic on rice using natural enterobacteria. The nanoparticles could significantly inhibit the uptake of arsenic in rice, promote the growth of rice under arsenic stress, and reduce oxidative damage in rice [100][55]. In summary, CeO2 NPs and TiO2 NPs have a dual effect on rice, while both help to ameliorate the stress on rice growth by other environmental pollutants in the environment. It is noteworthy that two nanomaterials should be the next topic of focus in enhancing the tolerance of rice facing harsh climatic and environmental changes. The effects of MONPs other than these two on rice growth and development have only been reported sporadically. There are still many gaps in the mechanisms related to the effects of nanomaterials on rice growth and development, and future studies should clarify their accumulation, transport mechanisms, and biotransformation within rice at different times, focusing on the potential effects of the combined effects of these nanomaterials and complex factors in the environment on rice growth and development.

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