Secrets of Flavonoid Synthesis in Mushroom Cells: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 1 by Jan Pukalski and Version 2 by Catherine Yang.

Flavonoids are chemical compounds that occur widely across the plant kingdom. They are considered valuable food additives with pro-health properties, and their sources have also been identified in other kingdoms. Especially interesting is the ability of edible mushrooms to synthesize flavonoids. Mushrooms are usually defined as a group of fungal species capable of producing macroscopic fruiting bodies, and there are many articles considering the content of flavonoids in this group of fungi. Whereas the synthesis of flavonoids was revealed in mycelial cells, the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to produce flavonoids does not seem to be clearly resolved. This articlentry, as an overview of the latest key scientific findings on flavonoids in mushrooms, outlines and organizes the current state of knowledge on the ability of mushroom fruiting bodies to synthesize this important group of compounds for vital processes. Putting the puzzle of the current state of knowledge on flavonoid biosynthesis in mushroom cells together, we propose a universal scheme of studies to unambiguously decide whether the fruiting bodies of individual mushrooms are capable of synthesizing flavonoids that was proposeds.

  • mushrooms
  • fruiting bodies
  • mycelia
  • flavonoids
  • biosynthesis

1. Introduction

Fungal cells are known to produce a variety of biological compounds. They are a source of medicinal substances, such as antibiotics [1][2][3], anticancer drugs [4][5] and even psychoactive compounds such as psilocybin, the application of which is controversial but postulated by some scientists to be useful in mental disorder treatments [6]. Fungal cells are also capable of synthesizing large polymers such as melanins [7][8] and chitosan [9], which are considered promising biomaterials [10][11][12], and notably, whole-mycelium-based composites are intensively studied as, among others, eco-friendly building materials [11][13]. A diverse group of fungal metabolites is the sesquiterpenes, which may be characterized by antifungal, antibacterial, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties [14]. As sesquiterpenes can be non-volatile or volatile [15], fungal volatile organic compounds (fVOCs) constitute another large group of ecologically important compounds, which is well described in Inamdar et al.’s [16] and Guo et al.’s [17]] articles. Fungal cells are also a rich source of pigments, including not only the previously mentioned melanins but also oxopolyenes, quinones, anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, hydroxyanthraquinones and azaphilones [18]. Some pigments may also be valuable food ingredients, for example, carotenoids and flavonoids [19][20]. Fungi are considered a promising source of nutrients. Barzee et al. [21] stated that even microscopic filamentous fungi such as Fusarium venenatum, Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus mycelia, after their proper preparation, may be consumed and become foods of the future. Interestingly, the mentioned fungi are characterized by high protein contents, with 48.0, 45.7 and 49.7 g per 100 g of dried weight, respectively. They also contain all essential amino acids required by humans and are a source of dietary fiber, unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, macroelements such as calcium, potassium, and phosphorus and microelements involving, i.a., zinc, of which an especially rich source is F. venenatum, with 30.4 mg/100 g of dried weight [21]. However, today, as has been the case for centuries, more attractive to consumers are edible mushrooms such as Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus sajor-caju or Pleurotus giganteus, the fruiting bodies of which are characterized by relatively high protein–fat ratios of 14.1:2.2, 37.4:1.0 and 17.7:4.3, respectively, and are a familiar, accepted form [22]. Moreover, nowadays, mushroom fruiting bodies are intensively studied as food sources, and detailed information about edible species, nutrient compositions, the digestibility of particular components and taste attributes can be found elsewhere [23][24][25].

2. Flavonoids and Mushrooms

Flavonoids are mainly considered plant secondary metabolites [26][27] that play protective roles against UV radiation [28] and reactive oxygen species (ROS) [29]. They are essential in plant–pollinator interactions [30] and protect the plant-host cells from pathogenic microbes, among which plant–fungi interactions and the antifungal properties of flavonoids are especially well described [31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. Thus, flavonoids, despite the positive role that they play in plant interactions with mycorrhizal fungi [41][42], are generally described as harmful to fungal cells. However, scientists are still focused on searching for fungi that produce flavonoids, especially mushrooms that evolve edible fruiting bodies [43][44][45], due to the health-promoting properties of these compounds [46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55]. Additionally, from the scientific point of view, the role of flavonoids in fruiting bodies is exceedingly interesting due to the fact that, except for hypogeous species, fruiting body cells are exposed to biotic and abiotic stresses that differ from those of mycelia located in the soil or touchwood.

Due to the term ‘mushroom’, which is defined as a group of species producing mycelia and macroscopic fruiting bodies or as macroscopic fruiting bodies only, what was mentioned for example on the official website of The Microbiology Society (https://microbiologysociety.org/why-microbiology-matters/what-is-microbiology/fungi.html access: 20.10.2022), there may be some linguistic problems with answearing the question whether mushrooms are capable of producing flavonoids. In theour opinion the first definition better captures the nature of mushrooms and the researchers we used it to construct the article ‘Secrets of Flavonoid Synthesis in Mushroom Cells’. From the scientific point of view, essential is whether mycelia as well as large fruiting bodies growing from it, are capable to synthesize flavonoids. Thus, the researchers we used terms ‘mushroom mycelia’ and ‘mushroom fruiting bodies’ to emphasize that metabolites profiles may differ in the mentioned structures produced by species of macrofungi [56][57].

3. Are Mushrooms Capable of Producing Flavonoids?

The discussion of the capability of mushroom cells to produce flavonoids has been ongoing for years. In 2016, Gil-Ramírez et al. [58] published an important article showing the analysis of 24 mushroom species, and their conclusion was that the mentioned fungi are not capable to synthesize or absorb flavonoids. In addition, searching in bioinformatic databases has shown no mushrooms with the gene sequences of all three enzymes which were postulated as essential for flavonoid biosynthesis, which are phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (Pal), chalcone synthase (Chs) and chalcone isomerase (Chi). However, the statement that mushrooms do not contain flavonoids seems to be unnecessarily extended to all species and strains. In the ouresearchers opinion, the valuable publication by Gil-Ramírez et al. [58] started the discussion of whether mushroom cells are capable of synthesizing flavonoids and the methods that should be used or avoided to verify this issue. The results of applying colorimetric analyses [58] led to the conclusion that more sophisticated methods, such as those using HPLC systems, should be involved instead of UV-Vis measurements only. Other papers, such as the article by Mohanta [59], which was a response to Gil-Ramírez et al.’s [58] paper, provided interesting information about mushrooms and fungi in general in the case of flavonoid synthesis, but they did not prove flavonoid synthesis inside the cells of mushroom fruiting bodies. Meng et al. [60] and Wang et al. [61] used both instrumental methods and gene expression analyses to study Auricularia cornea and Sanghuangporus baumii mushrooms respectively. The briliant results provided by the two mentioned Chinese teams proved that mushrooms mycelia are capable of synthesizing flavonoids, however fruiting bodies were not studied. The results provided by Liu et al. [62] proved that the fruiting bodies of some strains of Sanghuangporus sanghuang collected as environmental samples contained flavonoids, but there was no information on whether the genes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis were expressed; thus, the detected compounds could be synthesized by the mushroom or absorbed from the host mulberry tree. On the other hand, studies conducted by Shao et al. [63] revealed that genes engaged in flavonoid biosynthesis were expressed in the developmental stages of fruiting bodies of Sanghuangporus sanghuang KangNeng cultivated in the lab, and the lack of confirmation of flavonoid presence in fruiting body cells is the only reason why the synthesis of flavonoids in the analyzed mushroom strain was not fully proven. However, the results obtained by Liu et al. [62], Wang et al. [61] and Shao et al. [63] make the cells of the fruiting bodies of some strains of the Sanghuangporus genus highly probable flavonoid producers. Studies of Mohanta [59], Meng et al. [60], Wang et al. [61] and Shao et al. [63] showed that chs genes were absent in genomes of analysed fungi what suggests the presence of an alternative flavonoids synthesis pathway in comparison to plants. Other works, such as Alam et al. [64], revealed flavonoid content in mushroom fruiting bodies but did not provide information about the culture media and culture conditions; thus, similarly to environmental samples, the absorption of the compounds by fungal cells cannot be excluded. In conclusion, as can be found in the cited articles, although many researchers have been close to resolving the mystery of flavonoid synthesis in mushroom fruiting body cells, to the best of theour knowledge, the veil of the mystery over this issue has not been fully lifted yet.

Studying the problem is technically challenging; nevertheless, the rwesearchers propose factors that should be taken into consideration to conduct experiments to provide credible results. Firstly, one particular strain/isolate should be studied. Secondly, exclusively fruiting bodies, not mycelia, should be analyzed. Thirdly, if mushroom fruiting bodies can be cultivated on media with a well-defined composition, instrumental analyses, for example HPLC analysis, would be sufficient to prove flavonoid synthesis. When fruiting bodies are environmental samples, a combined analysis using instrumental methods and gene expression studies should be applied. The suggestions made are clear signposts on the paths leading to the definitive verification of the ability of mushroom fruiting body cells to synthesize flavonoids, and the goal itself already seems very close to being reached.

References

  1. Jiangtao Gao; Mohamed Radwan; Francisco Leon; Xiaoning Wang; Melissa R. Jacob; Babu L. Tekwani; Shabana I. Khan; Shari Lupien; Robert Hill; Frank M. Dugan; et al.Horace G. CutlerStephen J. Cutler Antimicrobial and antiprotozoal activities of secondary metabolites from the fungus Eurotium repens. Medicinal Chemistry Research 2011, 21, 3080-3086, 10.1007/s00044-011-9798-7.
  2. Riikka Linnakoski; Dhanik Reshamwala; Pyry Veteli; Marta Cortina-Escribano; Henri Vanhanen; Varpu Marjomäki; Antiviral Agents From Fungi: Diversity, Mechanisms and Potential Applications. Frontiers in Microbiology 2018, 9, 2325, 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02325.
  3. Fuhang Song; Rui Lin; Na Yang; Jia Jia; Shangzhu Wei; Jiahui Han; Jiangpeng Li; Hongkai Bi; Xiuli Xu; Antibacterial Secondary Metabolites from Marine-Derived Fungus Aspergillus sp. IMCASMF180035. Antibiotics 2021, 10, 377, 10.3390/antibiotics10040377.
  4. Alicja Michalczyk; Anna Cieniecka-Rosłonkiewicz; Małgorzata Cholewińska; Plant endophytic fungi as a source of paclitaxel. Herba Polonica 2015, 60, 22-33, 10.1515/hepo-2015-0002.
  5. Jian Zaiyou; Meng Li; Hu Xiqiao; An endophytic fungus efficiently producing paclitaxel isolated from Taxus wallichiana var. mairei. Medicine 2017, 96, e7406-e7406, 10.1097/md.0000000000007406.
  6. Jeremy Daniel; Margaret Haberman; Clinical potential of psilocybin as a treatment for mental health conditions. Mental Health Clinician 2017, 7, 24-28, 10.9740/mhc.2017.01.024.
  7. Jan Pukalski; Natalia Marcol; Norbert Wolan; Przemysław Mieszko Płonka; Przemysław Ryszka; Tadeusz Kowalski; Dariusz Latowski; Detection of a pheomelanin-like pigment by EPR spectroscopy in the mycelium of Plenodomus biglobosus. Acta Biochimica Polonica 2020, 67, 295-301, 10.18388/abp.2020_5405.
  8. Ellie Mattoon; Radames Cordero; Arturo Casadevall; Fungal Melanins and Applications in Healthcare, Bioremediation and Industry. Journal of Fungi 2021, 7, 488, 10.3390/jof7060488.
  9. V. Ghormade; E.K. Pathan; M.V. Deshpande; Can fungi compete with marine sources for chitosan production?. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2017, 104, 1415-1421, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.112.
  10. Saad M. Ahsan; Mathai Thomas; Kranthi K. Reddy; Sujata Gopal Sooraparaju; Amit Asthana; Ira Bhatnagar; Chitosan as biomaterial in drug delivery and tissue engineering. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2018, 110, 97-109, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.08.140.
  11. Kustrim Cerimi; Kerem Can Akkaya; Carsten Pohl; Bertram Schmidt; Peter Neubauer; Fungi as source for new bio-based materials: a patent review. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology 2019, 6, 1-10, 10.1186/s40694-019-0080-y.
  12. Chiara Cavallini; Giuseppe Vitiello; Barbara Adinolfi; Brigida Silvestri; Paolo Armanetti; Paola Manini; Alessandro Pezzella; Marco D’Ischia; Giuseppina Luciani; Luca Menichetti; et al. Melanin and Melanin-Like Hybrid Materials in Regenerative Medicine. Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1518, 10.3390/nano10081518.
  13. Digafe Alemu; Mesfin Tafesse; Ajoy Kanti Mondal; Mycelium-Based Composite: The Future Sustainable Biomaterial. International Journal of Biomaterials 2022, 2022, 1-12, 10.1155/2022/8401528.
  14. Quan Dai; Fa-Lei Zhang; Tao Feng; Sesquiterpenoids Specially Produced by Fungi: Structures, Biological Activities, Chemical and Biosynthesis (2015–2020). Journal of Fungi 2021, 7, 1026, 10.3390/jof7121026.
  15. Christopher M. Flynn; Karen Broz; Wilfried Jonkers; Claudia Schmidt-Dannert; Harold Kistler; Expression of the Fusarium graminearum terpenome and involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum-derived toxisome. Fungal Genetics and Biology 2019, 124, 78-87, 10.1016/j.fgb.2019.01.006.
  16. Arati A. Inamdar; Shannon Morath; Joan W. Bennett; Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds: More Than Just a Funky Smell?. Annual Review of Microbiology 2020, 74, 101-116, 10.1146/annurev-micro-012420-080428.
  17. Yuan Guo; Werner Jud; Fabian Weikl; Andrea Ghirardo; Robert R. Junker; Andrea Polle; J. Philipp Benz; Karin Pritsch; Jörg-Peter Schnitzler; Maaria Rosenkranz; et al. Volatile organic compound patterns predict fungal trophic mode and lifestyle. Communications Biology 2021, 4, 1-12, 10.1038/s42003-021-02198-8.
  18. Rishu Kalra; Xavier A. Conlan; Mayurika Goel; Fungi as a Potential Source of Pigments: Harnessing Filamentous Fungi. Frontiers in Chemistry 2020, 8, 369, 10.3389/fchem.2020.00369.
  19. Iramaia Angélica Neri-Numa; Henrique Silvano Arruda; Marina Vilar Geraldi; Mário Roberto Maróstica Júnior; Glaucia Maria Pastore; Natural prebiotic carbohydrates, carotenoids and flavonoids as ingredients in food systems. Current Opinion in Food Science 2020, 33, 98-107, 10.1016/j.cofs.2020.03.004.
  20. Nuri Andarwulan; Niken Cahyarani Puspita; Saraswati; Dominika Średnicka-Tober; Antioxidants Such as Flavonoids and Carotenoids in the Diet of Bogor, Indonesia Residents. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 587, 10.3390/antiox10040587.
  21. Tyler J. Barzee; Lin Cao; Zhongli Pan; Ruihong Zhang; Fungi for future foods. Journal of Future Foods 2021, 1, 25-37, 10.1016/j.jfutfo.2021.09.002.
  22. María Elena Valverde; Talía Hernández-Pérez; Octavio Paredes-López; Edible Mushrooms: Improving Human Health and Promoting Quality Life. International Journal of Microbiology 2015, 2015, 1-14, 10.1155/2015/376387.
  23. Abigail González; Mario Cruz; Carolina Losoya; Clarisse Nobre; Araceli Loredo; Rosa Rodríguez; Juan Contreras; Ruth Belmares; Edible mushrooms as a novel protein source for functional foods. Food & Function 2020, 11, 7400-7414, 10.1039/d0fo01746a.
  24. Victor L. Fulgoni; Sanjiv Agarwal; Nutritional impact of adding a serving of mushrooms on usual intakes and nutrient adequacy using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2016 data. Food Science & Nutrition 2021, 9, 1504-1511, 10.1002/fsn3.2120.
  25. Hassan El-Ramady; Neama Abdalla; Khandsuren Badgar; Xhensila Llanaj; Gréta Törős; Peter Hajdú; Yahya Eid; József Prokisch; Edible Mushrooms for Sustainable and Healthy Human Food: Nutritional and Medicinal Attributes. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4941, 10.3390/su14094941.
  26. Peter C.H. Holiman; Michaël G.L. Hertog; Martijn B. Katan; Analysis and health effects of flavonoids. Food Chemistry 1996, 57, 43-46, 10.1016/0308-8146(96)00065-9.
  27. Maria Celeste Dias; Diana C. G. A. Pinto; Artur M. S. Silva; Plant Flavonoids: Chemical Characteristics and Biological Activity. Molecules 2021, 26, 5377, 10.3390/molecules26175377.
  28. María Lorena Falcone Ferreyra; Paloma Serra; Paula Casati; Recent advances on the roles of flavonoids as plant protective molecules after UV and high light exposure. Physiologia Plantarum 2021, 173, 736-749, 10.1111/ppl.13543.
  29. Giovanni Agati; Elisa Azzarello; Susanna Pollastri; Massimiliano Tattini; Flavonoids as antioxidants in plants: Location and functional significance. Plant Science 2012, 196, 67-76, 10.1016/j.plantsci.2012.07.014.
  30. Ulrike Mathesius; Flavonoid Functions in Plants and Their Interactions with Other Organisms. Plants 2018, 7, 30, 10.3390/plants7020030.
  31. Karl E. Malterud; Torgunn E. Bremnes; Agnete Faegri; Turid Moe; Eva K. Sandanger Dugstad; Thorleif Anthonsen; Liv M. Henriksen; Flavonoids from the Wood of Salix caprea as Inhibitors of Wood-Destroying Fungi. Journal of Natural Products 1985, 48, 559-563, 10.1021/np50040a007.
  32. Martin Weidenbörner; Holger Hindorf; Hem Chandra Jha; Prodromos Tsotsonos; Antifungal activity of flavonoids against storage fungi of the genus Aspergillus. Phytochemistry 1990, 29, 1103-1105, 10.1016/0031-9422(90)85412-9.
  33. F. U. Afifi; S. Al-Khalil; B. K. Abdul-Haq; A. Mahasneh; D. M. Al-Eisawi; M. Sharaf; L. K. Wong; P. L. Schiff; Antifungal flavonoids fromVarthemia iphionoides. Phytotherapy Research 1991, 5, 173-175, 10.1002/ptr.2650050407.
  34. Martin Weidenb Örner; Hem Chandra Jha; Antifungal activity of flavonoids and their mixtures against different fungi occurring on grain. Pesticide Science 1993, 38, 347-351, 10.1002/ps.2780380412.
  35. G. S. Çitoğlu; B. Sever; S. Antus; E. Baitz-Gács; N. Altanlar; Antifungal Flavonoids fromBallota glandulosissima. Pharmaceutical Biology 2003, 41, 483-486, 10.1080/13880200308951339.
  36. Tamara L. Meragelman; Kenneth D. Tucker; Thomas G. McCloud; John H. Cardellina; Robert H. Shoemaker; Antifungal Flavonoids from Hildegardia barteri. Journal of Natural Products 2005, 68, 1790-1792, 10.1021/np0503000.
  37. Francesco Galeotti; Elisa Barile; Paolo Curir; Marcello Dolci; Virginia Lanzotti; Flavonoids from carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) and their antifungal activity. Phytochemistry Letters 2008, 1, 44-48, 10.1016/j.phytol.2007.10.001.
  38. Qudsia Kanwal; Ishtiaq Hussain; Hamid Latif Siddiqui; Arshad Javaid; Antifungal activity of flavonoids isolated from mango (Mangifera indicaL.) leaves. Natural Product Research 2010, 24, 1907-1914, 10.1080/14786419.2010.488628.
  39. Mohamed I. Ammar; Gomah Nenaah; Abul Hamed H. Mohamed; Antifungal activity of prenylated flavonoids isolated from Tephrosia apollinea L. against four phytopathogenic fungi. Crop Protection 2013, 49, 21-25, 10.1016/j.cropro.2013.02.012.
  40. Yong-Sheng Jin; Recent advances in natural antifungal flavonoids and their derivatives. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 2019, 29, 126589, 10.1016/j.bmcl.2019.07.048.
  41. J. O. Siqueira; G. R. Safir; M. G. Nair; Stimulation of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza formation and growth of white clover by flavonoid compounds. New Phytologist 1991, 118, 87-93, 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1991.tb00568.x.
  42. Baoliang Tian; Yingchun Pei; Wei Huang; Jianqing Ding; Evan Siemann; Increasing flavonoid concentrations in root exudates enhance associations between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and an invasive plant. The ISME Journal 2021, 15, 1919-1930, 10.1038/s41396-021-00894-1.
  43. Maja Kozarski; Anita Klaus; Jovana Vunduk; Zeljko Zizak; Miomir Niksic; Dragica Jakovljevic; Miroslav M. Vrvic; Leo J. L. D. Van Griensven; Nutraceutical properties of the methanolic extract of edible mushroom Cantharellus cibarius (Fries): primary mechanisms. Food & Function 2015, 6, 1875-1886, 10.1039/c5fo00312a.
  44. Luchai Butkhup; Wannee Samappito; Sujitar Jorjong; Evaluation of bioactivities and phenolic contents of wild edible mushrooms from northeastern Thailand. Food Science and Biotechnology 2017, 27, 193-202, 10.1007/s10068-017-0237-5.
  45. Adrian Podkowa; Agata Kryczyk-Poprawa; Włodzimierz Opoka; Bożena Muszyńska; Culinary–medicinal mushrooms: a review of organic compounds and bioelements with antioxidant activity. European Food Research and Technology 2020, 247, 513-533, 10.1007/s00217-020-03646-1.
  46. Pier-Giorgio Pietta; Flavonoids as Antioxidants. Journal of Natural Products 2000, 63, 1035-1042, 10.1021/np9904509.
  47. Kelly E Heim; Anthony R Tagliaferro; Dennis J Bobilya; Flavonoid antioxidants: chemistry, metabolism and structure-activity relationships. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2002, 13, 572-584, 10.1016/s0955-2863(02)00208-5.
  48. Mauro Serafini; Ilaria Peluso; Anna Raguzzini; Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2010, 69, 273-278, 10.1017/s002966511000162x.
  49. Yixi Xie; Weijie Yang; Fen Tang; Xiaoqing Chen; Licheng Ren; Antibacterial Activities of Flavonoids: Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanism. Current Medicinal Chemistry 2014, 22, 132-149, 10.2174/0929867321666140916113443.
  50. Ker Woon Choy; Dharmani Murugan; Xin-Fang Leong; Razif Abas; Aspalilah Alias; Mohd Rais Mustafa; Flavonoids as Natural Anti-Inflammatory Agents Targeting Nuclear Factor-Kappa B (NFκB) Signaling in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Mini Review. Frontiers in Pharmacology 2019, 10, 1295, 10.3389/fphar.2019.01295.
  51. Soheila J. Maleki; Jesus F. Crespo; Beatriz Cabanillas; Anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids. Food Chemistry 2019, 299, 125124, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125124.
  52. Shuai-Cheng Wu; Zhi-Qiang Yang; Fei Liu; Wen-Jing Peng; Shao-Qi Qu; Qian Li; Xiang-Bin Song; Kui Zhu; Jian-Zhong Shen; Antibacterial Effect and Mode of Action of Flavonoids From Licorice Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Frontiers in Microbiology 2019, 10, 2489, 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02489.
  53. Alhamzah Hasan Waheed Janabi; Asghar Ali Kamboh; Muhammad Saeed; Lu Xiaoyu; Jannat BiBi; Fatima Majeed; Muhammad Naveed; Muhammad Jameel Mughal; Nazar Ali Korejo; Rubina Kamboh; et al.Mahmoud AlagawanyHuixia Lv Flavonoid-rich foods (FRF): A promising nutraceutical approach against lifespan-shortening diseases. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2020, 23, 140-153.
  54. Xin Wang; Guohua Ding; Baodong Liu; Quanxi Wang; Flavonoids and antioxidant activity of rare and endangered fern: Isoetes sinensis. PLOS ONE 2020, 15, e0232185, 10.1371/journal.pone.0232185.
  55. Ganjun Yuan; Yingying Guan; Houqin Yi; Shan Lai; Yifei Sun; Seng Cao; Antibacterial activity and mechanism of plant flavonoids to gram-positive bacteria predicted from their lipophilicities. Scientific Reports 2021, 11, 1-15, 10.1038/s41598-021-90035-7.
  56. Yan-Liang Lin; Li-Ting Ma; Yi-Ru Lee; Jei-Fu Shaw; Sheng-Yang Wang; Fang-Hua Chu; Differential Gene Expression Network in Terpenoid Synthesis of Antrodia cinnamomea in Mycelia and Fruiting Bodies. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2017, 65, 1874-1886, 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b05386.
  57. Ha-Yeon Song; Dae-Hyuk Kim; Jung-Mi Kim; Comparative transcriptome analysis of dikaryotic mycelia and mature fruiting bodies in the edible mushroom Lentinula edodes. Scientific Reports 2018, 8, 1-15, 10.1038/s41598-018-27318-z.
  58. Alicia Gil-Ramírez; Cristina Pavo-Caballero; Esther Baeza; Nieves Baenas; Cristina Garcia-Viguera; Francisco R. Marín; Cristina Soler-Rivas; Mushrooms do not contain flavonoids. Journal of Functional Foods 2016, 25, 1-13, 10.1016/j.jff.2016.05.005.
  59. Tapan Kumar Mohanta; Fungi contain genes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. Journal of Functional Foods 2020, 68, 103910, 10.1016/j.jff.2020.103910.
  60. Li Meng; Shaoyan Zhang; Xiaoran Bai; Xiaobo Li; Qingji Wang; Li Wang; Wei Wang; Zhuang Li; Transcriptomic and Non-Targeted Metabolomic Analyses Reveal the Flavonoid Biosynthesis Pathway in Auricularia cornea. Molecules 2022, 27, 2334, 10.3390/molecules27072334.
  61. Shixin Wang; Zengcai Liu; Xutong Wang; Ruipeng Liu; Li Zou; Mushrooms Do Produce Flavonoids: Metabolite Profiling and Transcriptome Analysis of Flavonoid Synthesis in the Medicinal Mushroom Sanghuangporus baumii. Journal of Fungi 2022, 8, 582, 10.3390/jof8060582.
  62. Kun Liu; Xuan Xiao; Junli Wang; C.-Y. Oliver Chen; Huagang Hu; Polyphenolic composition and antioxidant, antiproliferative, and antimicrobial activities of mushroom Inonotus sanghuang. LWT 2017, 82, 154-161, 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.04.041.
  63. Ying Shao; Hongwei Guo; Jianping Zhang; Hui Liu; Kun Wang; Song Zuo; Pengfei Xu; Zhenrong Xia; Qiumei Zhou; Hanghang Zhang; et al.Xiangqing WangAnhui ChenYulong Wang The Genome of the Medicinal Macrofungus Sanghuang Provides Insights Into the Synthesis of Diverse Secondary Metabolites. Frontiers in Microbiology 2020, 10, 3035, 10.3389/fmicb.2019.03035.
  64. Alam Nuhu; Nam Yoon Ki; Soo Lee Tae; Nuhu Alam; Ki Nam Yoon; Tae Soo Lee; Evaluation of the antioxidant and antityrosinase activities of three extracts from Pleurotus nebrodensis fruiting bodies. African Journal of Biotechnology 2011, 10, 2978-2986, 10.5897/ajb10.2660.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback